{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T09:26:07Z","timestamp":1787304367779,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787270400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Medicina"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Backgroundand Objectives: Retinal microcirculation may serve as a surrogate marker of systemic vascular status and can be non-invasively assessed using optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA). Emerging evidence suggests that retinal and choroidal microvascular alterations may occur following coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C), potentially reflecting systemic vascular and inflammatory processes. This review summarizes the current evidence regarding retinal and choroidal microvascular changes detected by OCTA in pediatric patients with COVID-19 and MIS-C. Materials and Methods: A structured literature search of the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) PubMed database was conducted from inception until April 2026. Original English-language studies evaluating retinal and choroidal microcirculation using OCTA in pediatric patients with COVID-19 or MIS-C were identified and reviewed. Results: Available studies suggest variable retinal and choroidal microvascular alterations following COVID-19 and MIS-C, including changes in vessel density, perfusion, and foveal avascular zone parameters. Several investigations reported reduced vessel density, particularly within the deep capillary plexus, whereas others demonstrated increased peripapillary vascular parameters or no significant differences during the observation period. Differences in patient characteristics, disease severity, timing of imaging, OCTA protocols, and study design likely contribute to the heterogeneity of the reported findings. Conclusions: OCTA represents a promising research tool for investigating retinal and choroidal microvascular alterations associated with pediatric COVID-19 and MIS-C. However, the available evidence remains limited by small observational studies, methodological heterogeneity and inconsistent findings. Larger prospective longitudinal studies using standardized imaging protocols are needed to determine the clinical significance and reproducibility of OCTA-derived parameters and to establish whether they may have potential as biomarkers of ocular or systemic vascular involvement.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina62081603","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T08:14:01Z","timestamp":1787300041000},"page":"1603","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Effect of COVID-19 on Retinal and Choroidal Microvasculature in the Pediatric Population: A Literature Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"62","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7959-4854","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Evita Evangelia","family":"Christou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Manchester Royal Eye Hospital, Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester M13 9WL, UK"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Oxford Eye Hospital, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jane L.","family":"Ashworth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Manchester Royal Eye Hospital, Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester M13 9WL, UK"},{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Noha M.","family":"Soliman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Manchester Royal Eye Hospital, Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester M13 9WL, UK"},{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK"},{"name":"Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK"},{"name":"NIHR Biomedical Research Center, Moorfields Eye Hospital and UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, London EC1V 2PD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Kiraly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Manchester Royal Eye Hospital, Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester M13 9WL, UK"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Oxford Eye Hospital, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tariq","family":"Aslam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Manchester Royal Eye Hospital, Manchester University NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester M13 9WL, UK"},{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"157","article-title":"WHO Declares COVID-19 a Pandemic","volume":"91","author":"Cucinotta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Biomed."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30185-9","article-title":"A novel coronavirus outbreak of global health concern","volume":"395","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"US National Institutes of Health (2026, July 12). 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