{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T08:54:25Z","timestamp":1780563265518,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":97,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,25]],"date-time":"2023-05-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1684972800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Medicines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Fluoroquinolones (FQNs) are related to several central nervous system side effects. This review aims to evaluate the clinical-epidemiological profile, pathophysiological mechanisms, and management of FQNs-associated movement disorders (MDs). Methods: Two reviewers identified and assessed relevant reports in six databases without language restriction between 1988 and 2022. Results: A total of 45 reports containing 51 cases who developed MDs secondary to FQNs were reported. The MDs included 25 myoclonus, 13 dyskinesias, 7 dystonias, 2 cerebellar syndromes, 1 ataxia, 1 tic, and 2 undefined cases. The FQNs reported were ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, gatifloxacin, moxifloxacin, levofloxacin, gemifloxacin, and pefloxacin. The mean and median age were 64.54 (SD: 15.45) and 67 years (range: 25\u201387 years). The predominant sex was male (54.16%). The mean and median time of MD onset were 6.02 (SD: 10.87) and 3 days (range: 1\u201368 days). The mean and median recovery time after MD treatment was 5.71 (SD: 9.01) and 3 days (range: 1\u201356 days). A complete recovery was achieved within one week of drug withdrawal in 80.95% of the patients. Overall, 95.83% of the individuals fully recovered after management. Conclusions: Future cases need to describe the long-term follow-up of the individuals. Additionally, FQN-induced myoclonus should include electrodiagnostic studies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/medicines10060033","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]],"date-time":"2023-05-26T02:00:19Z","timestamp":1685066419000},"page":"33","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Fluoroquinolone-Associated Movement Disorder: A Literature Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6179-2177","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jamir Pitton","family":"Rissardo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Medicine Department, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria 97105-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8024-2354","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana Let\u00edcia Fornari","family":"Caprara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medicine Department, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria 97105-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kocsis, B., Guly\u00e1s, D., and Szab\u00f3, D. (2021). Delafloxacin, Finafloxacin, and Zabofloxacin: Novel Fluoroquinolones in the Antibiotic Pipeline. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10121506"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Millanao, A.R., Mora, A.Y., Villagra, N.A., Bucarey, S.A., and Hidalgo, A.A. (2021). Biological Effects of Quinolones: A Family of Broad-Spectrum Antimicrobial Agents. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26237153"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u00f3pez, Y., Mu\u00f1oz, L., Gargallo-Viola, D., Cant\u00f3n, R., Vila, J., and Zsolt, I. (2021). Uptake of Ozenoxacin and Other Quinolones in Gram-Positive Bacteria. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222413363"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1354","DOI":"10.2174\/1389450121666200621193355","article-title":"Fluoroquinolones: Blessings or Curses","volume":"21","author":"Majalekar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Drug. Targets"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.23.4.559","article-title":"In vitro activity of Bay 09867, a new quinoline derivative, compared with those of other antimicrobial agents","volume":"23","author":"Wise","year":"1983","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113741","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejmech.2021.113741","article-title":"The antibacterial activity of fluoroquinolone derivatives: An update (2018\u20132021)","volume":"224","author":"Jia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gutierrez, A., Stokes, J.M., and Matic, I. (2018). Our Evolving Understanding of the Mechanism of Quinolones. Antibiotics, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics7020032"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bush, N.G., Diez-Santos, I., Abbott, L.R., and Maxwell, A. (2020). Quinolones: Mechanism, Lethality and Their Contributions to Antibiotic Resistance. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25235662"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1093\/trstmh\/traa041","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms associated with quinolone resistance in Enterobacteriaceae: Review and update","volume":"114","author":"Azargun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.2165\/11587280-000000000-00000","article-title":"Quinolones: Review of psychiatric and neurological adverse reactions","volume":"34","author":"Filipe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Drug. Saf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1002\/pds.5219","article-title":"Comparative neurological safety of fluoroquinolones versus therapeutic alternatives","volume":"30","author":"Ellis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug. Saf."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.3390\/neurosci2030017","article-title":"Fluoroquinolones-Associated Disability: It Is Not All in Your Head","volume":"2","author":"Freeman","year":"2021","journal-title":"NeuroSci"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.1093\/clinids\/18.6.946","article-title":"Temafloxacin syndrome: Review of 95 cases","volume":"18","author":"Blum","year":"1994","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.2147\/TCRM.S284171","article-title":"How Safe are Fluoroquinolones for Diabetic Patients? A Systematic Review of Dysglycemic and Neuropathic Effects of Fluoroquinolones","volume":"17","author":"Althaqafi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ther. Clin. Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"92","article-title":"Comparison of corrected QT and Tp-e\/QTc interval in intoxication with drugs that cause QT prolongation in children","volume":"19","author":"Tutun","year":"2020","journal-title":"G\u00fcncel. Pediatri."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2021.02.009","article-title":"TNF\u03b1 enhances trovafloxacin-induced in vitro hepatotoxicity by inhibiting protective autophagy","volume":"342","author":"Ahn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.18773\/austprescr.2021.035","article-title":"Fluoroquinolone antibiotics and adverse events","volume":"44","author":"Baggio","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aust. Prescr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.27230","article-title":"Pharmacosafety of fluoroquinolone and macrolide antibiotics in the clinical care of patients with myasthenia gravis","volume":"64","author":"Leonard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"561","article-title":"Toxicological Aspects of Fluoroquinolones Administration: A Literature Review","volume":"65","author":"Khaleel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.2165\/00002512-200320040-00005","article-title":"Fluoroquinolones in the elderly: Safety considerations","volume":"20","author":"Stahlmann","year":"2003","journal-title":"Drugs. Aging"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1017\/pan.2018.26","article-title":"No Longer Lost in Translation: Evidence that Google Translate Works for Comparative Bag-of-Words Text Applications","volume":"26","author":"Schoonvelde","year":"2018","journal-title":"Politic. Anal."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Jankovic, J., and Tolosa, E. (2007). Parkinson\u2019s Disease and Movement Disorders, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1038\/clpt.1981.154","article-title":"A method for estimating the probability of adverse drug reactions","volume":"30","author":"Naranjo","year":"1981","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/21.6.811","article-title":"Neurological toxicity related to pefloxacin","volume":"21","author":"Lucet","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1177\/106002809002400204","article-title":"Potential neurologic toxicity related to ciprofloxacin","volume":"24","author":"Schwartz","year":"1990","journal-title":"DICP"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/0163-8343(94)00065-L","article-title":"The role of ciprofloxacin in a patient with delirium due to multiple etiologies","volume":"17","author":"Farrington","year":"1995","journal-title":"Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00900953","article-title":"Reversible oral-facial dyskinesia in a patient receiving ciprofloxacin hydrochloride","volume":"243","author":"Pastor","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1177\/106002809603000205","article-title":"Association of a Tourette-like syndrome with ofloxacin","volume":"30","author":"Thomas","year":"1996","journal-title":"Ann. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/14.5.1337a","article-title":"Neuropsychiatric complications following quinolone overdose in renal failure","volume":"14","author":"Bagon","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.3143\/geriatrics.36.213","article-title":"Levofloxacin-induced neurological adverse effects such as convulsion, involuntary movement (tremor, myoclonus and chorea like), visual hallucination in two elderly patients","volume":"36","author":"Yasuda","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nihon. Ronen. Igakkai Zasshi"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.12968\/hosp.2000.61.2.2404","article-title":"Ciprofloxacin-induced oral facial dyskinesia in a patient with normal liver and renal function","volume":"61","author":"Lee","year":"2000","journal-title":"Hosp. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"553","article-title":"Case report: Severe neurologic reaction to ciprofloxacin","volume":"47","author":"MacLeod","year":"2001","journal-title":"Can. Fam. Physician."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2261","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.161.18.2261","article-title":"Myoclonus and generalized seizures associated with gatifloxacin treatment","volume":"161","author":"Marinella","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"163","article-title":"Reversible Encephalopathy and Delirium in Patients with Chronic Renal Failure who had Received Ciprofloxacin","volume":"13","year":"2002","journal-title":"Saudi. J. Kidney Dis. Transpl."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1894","DOI":"10.1093\/ajhp\/59.19.1894b","article-title":"Oral gatifloxacin-induced ataxia","volume":"59","author":"Mohan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Health Syst. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.20053","article-title":"Reversible orofacial dyskinesia after ofloxacin treatment","volume":"19","author":"Vervaet","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.10717","article-title":"Propriospinal myoclonus after treatment with ciprofloxacin","volume":"19","author":"Post","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.20425","article-title":"Ciprofloxacin-induced chorea","volume":"20","author":"Azar","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.21452","article-title":"Ciprofloxacin-induced palatal tremor","volume":"22","author":"Cheung","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1675","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.21456","article-title":"Epileptic myoclonus as ciprofloxacin-associated adverse effect","volume":"22","author":"Striano","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1159\/000218098","article-title":"A case of hemiballism as a rare side effect of ciprofloxacin in a patient with liver cirrhosis","volume":"55","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chemother"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.4103\/0019-5359.59989","article-title":"A probable association of acute dystonia with gemifloxacin administration","volume":"63","author":"Sharma","year":"2009","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afq107","article-title":"Myoclonus and delirium associated with ciprofloxacin","volume":"39","author":"Jayathissa","year":"2010","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1097\/WNF.0b013e31826ba0eb","article-title":"Orofacial dyskinesia after moxifloxacin treatment-a case with normal hepatorenal function and review of literature","volume":"35","author":"Mittal","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bcr2013009293","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2013-009293","article-title":"Ciprofloxacin-associated choreoathetosis in a haemodialysis patient","volume":"2013","author":"Abdalla","year":"2013","journal-title":"BMJ Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"390","article-title":"\u201cCIPROCLONUS\u201d: Ciprofloxacin induced myoclonus","volume":"61","author":"Anderson","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Investig. Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1177\/1060028013507050","article-title":"Orofacial dyskinesia associated with the use of levofloxacin","volume":"48","author":"Host","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"906","DOI":"10.1111\/bcp.12213","article-title":"Myoclonus associated with concomitant ciprofloxacin and oxycodone in an older patient","volume":"77","author":"Hewton","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s40734-015-0021-8","article-title":"Reversible craniocervical dystonia associated with levofloxacin","volume":"2","author":"Lizarraga","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1162","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2015.15030353","article-title":"Sudden-onset dystonia in a patient taking asenapine: Interaction between ciprofloxacin and asenapine metabolism","volume":"172","author":"Ridout","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"622","article-title":"Myoclonus associated with Ciprofloxacin therapy","volume":"40","author":"Juana","year":"2016","journal-title":"Farm. Hosp."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tube.2016.01.004","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of additional levofloxacin in tuberculous meningitis: A randomized controlled pilot study","volume":"98","author":"Kalita","year":"2016","journal-title":"Tuberculosis"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.therap.2016.12.001","article-title":"A first case of cerebellar syndrome due to fluoroquinolone","volume":"72","author":"Zulfiqar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Therapie"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.9758\/cpn.2017.15.4.407","article-title":"Lithium Intoxication: A Possible Interaction with Moxifloxacin","volume":"15","author":"Kayipmaz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Psychopharmacol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"1","article-title":"A Rare Instance of Levofloxacin Induced Myoclonus","volume":"11","author":"Kunder","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Diagn. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.5334\/tohm.391","article-title":"Negative Myoclonus Induced by Ciprofloxacin","volume":"7","author":"Verrips","year":"2017","journal-title":"Tremor. Other Hyperkinet. Mov."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1483","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-018-3298-1","article-title":"Levofloxacin-induced hemichorea-hemiballism in a patient with previous thalamic infarction","volume":"39","author":"Bacchin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.5455\/umj.20180207122003","article-title":"Fluoroquinolone Induced Movement Disorders: Case Report and Literature Review","volume":"4","author":"Bates","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ulutas. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1111\/hdi.12687","article-title":"Hemodialysis for treatment of levofloxacin-induced neurotoxicity","volume":"23","author":"Idrees","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hemodial. Int."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"765","article-title":"Levofloxacin-Induced Myoclonus","volume":"4","author":"Olmsted","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hosp. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"12","article-title":"Levofloxacin associated fatal oro-facio-brachial dystonia in cirrhosis","volume":"10","author":"Philips","year":"2018","journal-title":"OGH Reports"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.31024\/ajpp.2018.4.1.16","article-title":"Multifocal dystonia induced by levofloxacin","volume":"4","author":"Shihabudheen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Asian J. Pharm. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nishikubo, M., Kanamori, M., and Nishioka, H. (2019). Levofloxacin-Associated Neurotoxicity in a Patient with a High Concentration of Levofloxacin in the Blood and Cerebrospinal Fluid. Antibiotics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics8020078"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1495","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.1619-18","article-title":"Levofloxacin-associated Encephalopathy with Severe Hyperventilation","volume":"58","author":"Sugiura","year":"2019","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"181","article-title":"Dystonia as an unexpected interaction of ciprofloxacin and clozapine: A case report","volume":"29","author":"Yildiz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychi. Clin. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.4103\/aian.AIAN_429_19","article-title":"Levofloxacin-Induced Myoclonus and Encephalopathy","volume":"23","author":"Reddy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Indian Acad. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1097\/01.NPR.0000660368.67226.ad","article-title":"Ciprofloxacin-rasagiline drug interaction leading to dopaminergic effects","volume":"45","author":"Chappell","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nurse Pract."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.5334\/tohm.554","article-title":"Clinical Spectrum of Drug-Induced Movement Disorders: A Study of 97 Patients","volume":"10","author":"Chouksey","year":"2020","journal-title":"Tremor. Other Hyperkinet."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Kane, S. (2022). The Top 300 of 2020, ClinCalc DrugStats Database, Version 20.1, ClinCalc. Available online: https:\/\/clincalc com\/DrugStats\/Top300Drugs.aspx."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0015121","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00151-21","article-title":"Outpatient Fluoroquinolone Prescription Fills in the United States, 2014 to 2020: Assessing the Impact of Food and Drug Administration Safety Warnings","volume":"65","author":"Buehrle","year":"2021","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2136662","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.36662","article-title":"Association of Fluoroquinolone Prescribing Rates with Black Box Warnings from the US Food and Drug Administration","volume":"4","author":"Sankar","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.2174\/1574886308666140106154754","article-title":"Third and fourth generation fluoroquinolone antibacterials: A systematic review of safety and toxicity profiles","volume":"9","author":"Sousa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Drug. Saf."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/27.2.209","article-title":"The effects of quinolones and NSAIDs upon GABA-evoked currents recorded from rat dorsal root ganglion neurones","volume":"27","author":"Halliwell","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.3109\/15376516.2015.1026008","article-title":"Ciprofloxacin-induced neurotoxicity: Evaluation of possible underlying mechanisms","volume":"25","author":"Ilgin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Toxicol. Mech. Methods"},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"16","article-title":"Fluoroquinolone induced neurotoxicity: A review","volume":"3","author":"Kamath","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Adv. Pharm. Edu. Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162098","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.162098","article-title":"Study effect and mechanism of levofloxacin on the neurotoxicity of Rana nigromaculata tadpoles exposed to imidacloprid based on the microbe-gut-brain axis","volume":"872","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115397","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2020.115397","article-title":"Short-term exposure to norfloxacin induces oxidative stress, neurotoxicity and microbiota alteration in juvenile large yellow croaker Pseudosciaena crocea","volume":"267","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2019.02.007","article-title":"Effects of norfloxacin exposure on neurodevelopment of zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos","volume":"72","author":"Xi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8023935","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/8023935","article-title":"Treatment of the Fluoroquinolone-Associated Disability: The Pathobiochemical Implications","volume":"2017","author":"Michalak","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell Longev."},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"1","article-title":"Neuropsychological Side Effects Associated with Fluoroquinolone Therapy: A Qualitative Review with Recommendations for Future Research","volume":"4","author":"Flynn","year":"2022","journal-title":"MAR Neurol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.4103\/tcmj.tcmj_74_22","article-title":"Phenytoin-associated movement disorders: A literature review","volume":"34","author":"Rissardo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Tzu Chi Med. J."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.4103\/bc.bc_77_21","article-title":"Lithium-associated movement disorder: A literature review","volume":"8","author":"Rissardo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain Circ."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-4522(93)90177-H","article-title":"The substantia innominata complex and the peripeduncular nucleus in orofacial dyskinesia: A pharmacological and anatomical study in cats","volume":"52","author":"Spooren","year":"1993","journal-title":"Neurosci"},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"Cd000203","article-title":"Gamma-aminobutyric acid agonists for antipsychotic-induced tardive dyskinesia","volume":"4","author":"Alabed","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.147.4.445","article-title":"Clonazepam treatment of tardive dyskinesia: A practical GABAmimetic strategy","volume":"147","author":"Thaker","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"776","article-title":"Predicting Early Stage Drug Induced Parkinsonism using Unsupervised and Supervised Machine Learning","volume":"2020","author":"Nair","year":"2020","journal-title":"Annu. Int. Conf. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.4103\/bc.bc_57_19","article-title":"Pregabalin-associated movement disorders: A literature review","volume":"6","author":"Rissardo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Circ."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.14712\/23362936.2020.1","article-title":"Buspirone-associated Movement Disorder: A Literature Review","volume":"121","author":"Rissardo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prague. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"1","article-title":"Sensorimotor Integration and GABA-ergic Activity in Embouchure Dystonia: An Assessment with Magnetoencephalography","volume":"9","author":"Bulica","year":"2019","journal-title":"Tremor. Other Hyperkinet. Mov."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.10073","article-title":"Impaired brain GABA in focal dystonia","volume":"51","author":"Levy","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1193","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics11091193","article-title":"Tissue Penetration of Antimicrobials in Intensive Care Unit Patients: A Systematic Review&mdash\u2014Part II","volume":"11","author":"Viaggi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Antibiotics"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1097\/WNF.0000000000000387","article-title":"Carbamazepine-, Oxcarbazepine-, Eslicarbazepine-Associated Movement Disorder: A Literature Review","volume":"43","author":"Rissardo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1097\/WNF.0000000000000182","article-title":"Does Levofloxacin Improve Parkinsonian Features or Is the Improvement Only Coincidental?","volume":"39","author":"Sawaya","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"100080","article-title":"Gait improvement after levofloxacin administration in a progressive supranuclear palsy patient","volume":"3","author":"Kurihara","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Park Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.24778","article-title":"Physiology of freezing of gait","volume":"80","author":"Snijders","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1614","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.21022","article-title":"Intravenous flumazenil for Parkinson\u2019s disease: A single dose, double blind, placebo controlled, cross-over trial","volume":"21","author":"Ondo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1222","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)62416-6","article-title":"Zolpidem in Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"349","author":"Daniele","year":"1997","journal-title":"Lancet"}],"container-title":["Medicines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6320\/10\/6\/33\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:42:00Z","timestamp":1760125320000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2305-6320\/10\/6\/33"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,25]]},"references-count":97,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["medicines10060033"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/medicines10060033","relation":{},"ISSN":["2305-6320"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2305-6320","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,25]]}}}