{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T00:30:30Z","timestamp":1792024230391,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,16]],"date-time":"2025-03-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1742083200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Medical Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The term axial spondyloarthritis (axSpA) encompasses patients with both radiographic (r-axSpA) and non-radiographic (nr-axSpA) forms of the disease. These are two entities within the same family that share many genetic and pathogenic factors, but they also have significant differences. For example, the male-to-female ratio is 2:1 in r-axSpA and 1:1 in nr-axSpA. Additionally, the prevalence of the HLA-B27 gene is notably higher in r-axSpA. Early diagnosis remains an unmet need, with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) being the most important tool for diagnosis and disease monitoring. Early detection is crucial, as it allows for timely treatment, increasing the chances of preventing new bone formation and long-term structural bone damage. Various cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-\u03b1 and interleukin-17, play active roles in the disease\u2019s pathogenesis, although the exact mechanisms of interaction are not yet fully understood. Clarifying these mechanisms will be key to developing new classification criteria, screening methods, and more personalized, targeted therapies. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), TNF inhibitors, interleukin-17 blockers, and, more recently, Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors, are the most effective treatments for both radiographic and non-radiographic axial spondyloarthritis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/medsci13010032","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,17]],"date-time":"2025-03-17T07:49:57Z","timestamp":1742197797000},"page":"32","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["State-of-the-Art Review on the Treatment of Axial Spondyloarthritis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Evripidis","family":"Kaltsonoudis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Chatzikosta General Hospital, 454 45 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Panagiota","family":"Karagianni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical School, Department of Microbiology, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tereza","family":"Memi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical School, Department of Rheumatology, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9383-5722","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eleftherios","family":"Pelechas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Chatzikosta General Hospital, 454 45 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2015-208852","article-title":"The term \u201cnon-radiographic axial spondyloarthritis\u201d is much more important to classify than to diagnose patients with axial spondyloarthritis","volume":"75","author":"Deodhar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. 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