{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T11:20:44Z","timestamp":1787570444670,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787270400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Med. Sci.","Medical Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Streptococcus suis serotype 2 is a major zoonotic pathogen responsible for severe systemic infections in pigs and humans, including septicemia, meningitis, and high mortality outcomes. Cefquinome, a fourth-generation \u03b2-lactam antibiotic widely used in veterinary medicine, is commonly applied for the treatment of S. suis infections. However, optimized dosing strategies remain insufficiently defined, particularly under conditions of varying bacterial burden, inoculum size, and reduced susceptibility or resistance phenotypes. These factors may significantly alter pharmacodynamic responses and compromise the predictive value of conventional MIC-based approaches. Objectives: This study aimed to characterize the pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics (PD) of cefquinome against S. suis serotype 2 using an integrated ex vivo serum time-kill experiments and semi-mechanistic PK\/PD modeling. A secondary objective was to evaluate optimized dosing regimens across different inoculum levels and susceptibility phenotypes, including a cefquinome-resistant mutant. Methods: Cefquinome pharmacokinetics following intramuscular administration at 2 and 4 mg\/kg in piglets were described using a two-compartment model. Dose proportionality, exposure linearity, and clearance parameters were assessed. Ex vivo serum time-kill experiments were conducted using a parental strain and a cefquinome-resistant mutant (M1) under normal-inoculum (NI), high-inoculum (HI), and mutant\/resistant (MS) conditions. A semi-mechanistic PK\/PD model incorporating logistic bacterial growth, sigmoidal Emax killing, nutrient limitation, and a time-delay function was developed to describe dynamic bacterial responses. Model parameters (k0, kmax, EC50) were estimated using nonlinear least-squares regression (Scientist v2.0), and simulations were performed by integrating time-varying PK input functions. Results: Cefquinome demonstrated linear pharmacokinetics with dose-proportional increases in Cmax and AUC between 2 and 4 mg\/kg, with comparable clearance across doses. Ex vivo studies revealed time-dependent antibacterial activity with a pronounced inoculum effect. Higher bacterial burdens significantly reduced bactericidal efficiency and promoted regrowth during declining drug exposure. No tested concentrations achieved \u22653-log10 killing in HI or MS conditions, whereas the NI group achieved a maximal reduction of 3.5-log10 CFU\/mL. MIC values in serum and medium were consistent (0.03, 0.06, and 0.24 \u00b5g\/mL for NI, HI, and MS, respectively), indicating minimal protein binding influence. The semi-mechanistic model accurately described observed bacterial dynamics (R2 &gt; 0.99; MSC &gt; 1.5), capturing delayed drug effects, inoculum-dependent growth suppression, and regrowth phenomena. Growth rates were reduced under serum conditions, reflecting nutrient limitation. Importantly, inoculum size exerted a stronger impact on pharmacodynamic outcomes than resistance phenotype, as reflected by reductions in kmax and increases in EC50 under HI conditions. Although %T&gt;MIC exceeded conventional \u03b2-lactam targets (&gt;40%) in most regimens, MIC-based indices poorly correlated with observed dynamic killing responses. Conclusions: Cefquinome exhibited time-dependent antibacterial activity against S. suis serotype 2, strongly modulated by inoculum size and reduced susceptibility. The developed semi-mechanistic PK\/PD model provided robust prediction of bacterial time-kill behavior and outperformed MIC-based metrics in guiding dose optimization. Simulation results support 2 mg\/kg every 24 h for normal infections and 2 mg\/kg every 12 h for high-inoculum or less susceptible infections, emphasizing the value of model-informed dosing strategies for optimizing \u03b2-lactam therapy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/medsci14040505","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T15:51:05Z","timestamp":1787327465000},"page":"505","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Mechanism-Base Pharmacokinetic\u2013Pharmacodynamic Modeling of Cefquinome Against Streptococcus suis Serotype 2 Under Different Inoculum and Susceptibility Conditions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1478-6310","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aktham H.","family":"Mestareehi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Pharmaceutical Sciences and Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Isra University, Amman 11622, Jordan"},{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb.11.149","article-title":"Virulence Factors Involved in the Pathogenesis of the Infection Caused by the Swine Pathogen and Zoonotic Agent Streptococcus suis","volume":"7","author":"Fittipaldi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Future Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2005.01.003","article-title":"Biochemical Analysis, Cpn60 and 16S rDNA Sequence Data Indicate That Streptococcus suis Serotypes 32 and 34, Isolated from Pigs, are Streptococcus orisratti","volume":"107","author":"Hill","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet. 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