{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T09:18:03Z","timestamp":1787822283374,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787788800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Med. Sci.","Medical Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Chronic kidney disease (CKD) requires assessment of both glomerular filtration and kidney damage, particularly albuminuria, for diagnosis, risk stratification, and longitudinal care. Point-of-care testing (POCT) can shorten turnaround time and improve access when conventional laboratory testing is unavailable or would delay a clinical pathway. This narrative review summarizes established and emerging POCT approaches for kidney assessment in CKD, with emphasis on creatinine\/eGFR and urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR), and distinguishes analytical validity from workflow utility and patient-level clinical utility. Evidence is strongest for rapid creatinine measurement in selected workflows, especially pre-imaging assessment and decentralized screening, while quantitative\/semiquantitative UACR POCT can support CKD detection when abnormal results are appropriately confirmed. Cystatin C microfluidic systems remain investigational, and kidney injury\/stress or molecular biomarkers such as NGAL, KIM-1, L-FABP, [TIMP-2]\u00b7[IGFBP7], extracellular vesicles, and microRNAs should be regarded primarily as a research horizon rather than direct measures of GFR. Important implementation requirements include assay-specific validation, calibration traceability, quality assurance, recognition of biological and analytical interference, and confirmation of results near major clinical decision thresholds. Evidence that POCT improves long-term CKD outcomes, safety, adherence, or cost-effectiveness remains limited. Future studies should prioritize prospective clinical utility, implementation, cost-effectiveness, home-use validation, and patient-centered outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/medsci14050521","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T08:02:27Z","timestamp":1787817747000},"page":"521","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Point-of-Care Assessment of Kidney Function in Chronic Kidney Disease: Current Technologies and Future Perspectives"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8422-2644","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Atthaphong","family":"Phongphithakchai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Nephrology Unit, Division of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla 90110, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kraiyasak","family":"Wongna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-5418-8540","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ratana","family":"Netphakdee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand"},{"name":"Biomedical Sciences and Health Innovations (International Program), School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5247-166X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wiyada Kwanhian","family":"Klangbud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Technology Program, Faculty of Science, Nakhon Phanom University, Nakhon Phanom 48000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-4542-8980","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jongkonnee","family":"Thanasai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Mahasarakham University, Mahasarakham 44000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8781-2516","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fumitaka","family":"Kawakami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Regulation Biochemistry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kitasato University, Sagamihara 252-0373, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3264-1155","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Moragot","family":"Chatatikun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand"},{"name":"Research Excellence Center for Innovation and Health Products, Walailak University, Tha Sala, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80161, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1238","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)32064-5","article-title":"Chronic kidney disease","volume":"389","author":"Webster","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1038\/s41581-024-00820-6","article-title":"Chronic kidney disease and the global public health agenda: An international consensus","volume":"20","author":"Francis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ortiz, A., Lees, J.S., Torra, R., Stel, V.S., Kramer, A., and Mark, P.B. (2026). The updated global burden of chronic kidney disease: One death every 20 seconds. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant., gfag040.","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfag040"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2024). Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD Work Group. KDIGO 2024 Clinical Practice Guideline for the Evaluation and Management of Chronic Kidney Disease. Kidney Int., 105, S117\u2013S314.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2023.10.018"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"179","article-title":"Laboratory turnaround time","volume":"28","author":"Hawkins","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gama, R.M., Nebres, D., and Bramham, K. (2024). Community point-of-care testing in diagnosing and managing chronic kidney disease. Diagnostics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics14141542"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kint.2023.10.016","article-title":"Executive summary of the KDIGO 2024 Clinical Practice Guideline for the Evaluation and Management of Chronic Kidney Disease: Known knowns and known unknowns","volume":"105","author":"Levin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e032132","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2019-032132","article-title":"Impact of point-of-care panel tests in ambulatory care: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"10","author":"Goyder","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1177\/0300060517709199","article-title":"Evaluation of serum neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin in predicting acute kidney injury in critically ill patients","volume":"45","author":"Hang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Int. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138880","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2025.138880","article-title":"Integrated microfluidic immunoassays for point-of-care diagnostic measurement of human serum cystatin C in chronic kidney disease","volume":"448","author":"Tomsa","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-150-9-200905050-00006","article-title":"A new equation to estimate glomerular filtration rate","volume":"150","author":"Levey","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejim.2019.10.025","article-title":"Creatinine: From physiology to clinical application","volume":"72","author":"Kashani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2005.0525144","article-title":"Recommendations for improving serum creatinine measurement: A report from the Laboratory Working Group of the National Kidney Disease Education Program","volume":"52","author":"Myers","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2013.03.027","article-title":"Update on cystatin C: Incorporation into clinical practice","volume":"62","author":"Shlipak","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1737","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2102953","article-title":"New creatinine- and cystatin C-based equations to estimate GFR without race","volume":"385","author":"Inker","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"109","article-title":"Point-of-care testing and creatinine measurement","volume":"32","author":"Shephard","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3310\/hta24390","article-title":"Point-of-care creatinine tests to assess kidney function for outpatients requiring contrast-enhanced CT imaging: Systematic reviews and economic evaluation","volume":"24","author":"Corbett","year":"2020","journal-title":"Health Technol. Assess."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plabm.2020.e00190","article-title":"Performance evaluation of all analytes on the epoc\u00ae Blood Analysis System for use in hospital surgical and intensive care units","volume":"22","author":"Bagherpoor","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pract. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Abaxis Inc. (2009). Piccolo Kidney Check Reagent Disc: Instructions for Use, Abaxis Inc."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"430","article-title":"Performance evaluation of the Piccolo Xpress point-of-care chemistry analyzer","volume":"29","author":"Park","year":"2009","journal-title":"Korean J. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Nova Biomedical (2008). StatSensor Creatinine and eGFR Meter: Instructions for Use, Nova Biomedical."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2054358120970716","DOI":"10.1177\/2054358120970716","article-title":"Performance of StatSensor point-of-care device for measuring creatinine in patients with chronic kidney disease and post-kidney transplantation","volume":"7","author":"Nataatmadja","year":"2020","journal-title":"Can. J. Kidney Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.5334\/aogh.3884","article-title":"Point-of-care testing in chronic kidney disease of non-traditional origin: Considerations for clinical, epidemiological, and health surveillance research and practice","volume":"89","author":"Dally","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1269","DOI":"10.1515\/cclm-2018-0128","article-title":"Point-of-care creatinine testing for kidney function measurement prior to contrast-enhanced diagnostic imaging: Evaluation of the performance of three systems for clinical utility","volume":"56","author":"Snaith","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Chem. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Siemens Healthineers (2018). epoc Blood Analysis System: Summary of Analytical Methods and Performance, Siemens Healthineers."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e143","DOI":"10.1002\/hsr2.143","article-title":"Evaluation of a point-of-care serum creatinine measurement device and the impact on diagnosis of acute kidney injury in pediatric cardiac patients: A retrospective, single-center study","volume":"3","author":"Kimura","year":"2020","journal-title":"Health Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2017.12.025","article-title":"Point-of-care creatinine testing in patients receiving contrast-enhanced computed tomography scan","volume":"478","author":"Bargnoux","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.21037\/jlpm.2019.07.01","article-title":"Analytical evaluation of Radiometer ABL90 FLEX PLUS enzymatic creatinine assay","volume":"4","author":"Salvagno","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Lab. Precis. Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2011.12.013","article-title":"Evaluation of the performance of urine albumin, creatinine and albumin-creatinine ratio assay on two POCT analyzers relative to a central laboratory method","volume":"413","author":"Omoruyi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.7326\/M13-2331","article-title":"Diagnostic accuracy of point-of-care tests for detecting albuminuria: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"160","author":"McTaggart","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1080\/00325481.2026.2634426","article-title":"Cystatin C in chronic kidney disease: Enhancing diagnostic accuracy and patient outcomes","volume":"138","author":"Patel","year":"2026","journal-title":"Postgrad. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100600","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xkme.2023.100600","article-title":"Estimated GFR with cystatin C and creatinine in clinical practice: A retrospective cohort study","volume":"5","author":"Gottlieb","year":"2023","journal-title":"Kidney Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2013.220707","article-title":"Generation of a new cystatin C-based estimating equation for glomerular filtration rate by use of seven assays standardized to the international calibrator","volume":"60","author":"Grubb","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelechem.2022.116420","article-title":"A label-free electrochemical immunosensor based on PdPtCu@BP bilayer nanosheets for point-of-care kidney injury molecule-1 testing","volume":"917","author":"Yin","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5695","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-022-04072-w","article-title":"Target amplification-free detection of urinary microRNA for diabetic nephropathy diagnosis with electrocatalytic reaction","volume":"414","author":"Ngamdee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2534","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ASN.0000088027.54400.C6","article-title":"Identification of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin as a novel early urinary biomarker for ischemic renal injury","volume":"14","author":"Mishra","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2009.07.020","article-title":"Accuracy of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) in diagnosis and prognosis of acute kidney injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"54","author":"Haase","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1755.2002.00433.x","article-title":"Kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1): A novel biomarker for human renal proximal tubule injury","volume":"62","author":"Han","year":"2002","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lab.2004.12.003","article-title":"Clinical evaluation of urinary excretion of liver-type fatty acid-binding protein as a marker for the monitoring of chronic kidney disease: A multicenter trial","volume":"145","author":"Kamijo","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Lab. Clin. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Argyropoulos, C.P., Chen, S.S., Ng, Y.H., Roumelioti, M.E., Shaffi, K., Singh, P.P., and Tzamaloukas, A.H. (2017). Rediscovering beta-2 microglobulin as a biomarker across the spectrum of kidney diseases. Front. Med., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2017.00073"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2015.07.025","article-title":"GFR estimation using \u03b2-trace protein and \u03b22-microglobulin in chronic kidney disease","volume":"67","author":"Inker","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2013.01.016","article-title":"Novel filtration markers as predictors of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in U.S. adults","volume":"62","author":"Foster","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3011","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000003011","article-title":"Plasma uromodulin correlates with kidney function and identifies early stages in chronic kidney disease patients","volume":"95","author":"Steubl","year":"2016","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfw422","article-title":"Serum uromodulin: A marker of kidney function and renal parenchymal integrity","volume":"33","author":"Scherberich","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R25","DOI":"10.1186\/cc12503","article-title":"Discovery and validation of cell cycle arrest biomarkers in human acute kidney injury","volume":"17","author":"Kashani","year":"2013","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"932","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201401-0077OC","article-title":"Validation of cell-cycle arrest biomarkers for acute kidney injury using clinical adjudication","volume":"189","author":"Bihorac","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13368","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0403453101","article-title":"Identification and proteomic profiling of exosomes in human urine","volume":"101","author":"Pisitkun","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2015010074","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles in renal diseases: More than novel biomarkers?","volume":"27","author":"Le","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneph.2014.202","article-title":"MicroRNAs in kidney physiology and disease","volume":"11","author":"Trionfini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1007\/s11255-021-02922-7","article-title":"miRNA biomarkers in renal disease","volume":"54","author":"Franczyk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Urol. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102027","DOI":"10.1016\/j.disamonth.2025.102027","article-title":"Chronic kidney disease for the primary care provider","volume":"72","author":"Doak","year":"2026","journal-title":"Dis. Mon."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kreepala, C., Anakkamatee, W., and Pechbooranin, A. (2025). Artificial intelligence-based diagnosis of diabetic kidney disease using urinary VOC biosensor data. BMC Nephrol., 26.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12882-025-04608-z"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hill, N.R., Fatoba, S.T., Oke, J.L., Hirst, J.A., O\u2019Callaghan, C.A., Lasserson, D.S., and Hobbs, F.D.R. (2016). Global prevalence of chronic kidney disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0158765"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1436","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2024816","article-title":"Dapagliflozin in patients with chronic kidney disease","volume":"383","author":"Heerspink","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"The EMPA-KIDNEY Collaborative Group (2023). Empagliflozin in patients with chronic kidney disease. N. Engl. J. Med., 388, 117\u2013127.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2204233"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"(2012). Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Acute Kidney Injury Work Group. KDIGO Clinical Practice Guideline for Acute Kidney Injury. Kidney Int. Suppl., 2, 1\u2013138."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Phongphithakchai, A., Thingphom, S., Tedasen, A., Jansakun, C., Klangbud, W.K., Thanasai, J., Kawakami, F., and Chatatikun, M. (2026). Agreement of electrolyte measurements between arterial blood gas analyzers and central laboratories in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury. Med. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/medsci14030383"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.11613\/BM.2015.015","article-title":"Understanding Bland\u2013Altman analysis","volume":"25","author":"Giavarina","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biochem. Med."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1038\/s41581-019-0243-3","article-title":"Artificial intelligence approaches to improve kidney care","volume":"16","author":"Rashidi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-018-0300-7","article-title":"High-performance medicine: The convergence of human and artificial intelligence","volume":"25","author":"Topol","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-019-0040-3","article-title":"Accessing analytes in biofluids for peripheral biochemical monitoring","volume":"37","author":"Heikenfeld","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2014.04.005","article-title":"Non-invasive wearable electrochemical sensors: A review","volume":"32","author":"Bandodkar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"66","article-title":"Saliva as a diagnostic tool for oral and systemic diseases","volume":"6","author":"Javaid","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Oral Biol. Craniofac. Res."}],"container-title":["Medical Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3271\/14\/5\/521\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T08:22:30Z","timestamp":1787818950000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3271\/14\/5\/521"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["medsci14050521"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/medsci14050521","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3271"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3271","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]]}}}