{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T22:29:16Z","timestamp":1779229756932,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,23]],"date-time":"2023-11-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700697600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of South Africa and the National Research Council of South Africa (NRF)","award":["150341"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["150341"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Membranes"],"abstract":"<jats:p>PVA (polyvinyl alcohol)-ZrP (PVA\/ZrP) and Nafion\u00ae\/PVA-ZrP nanocomposite membranes were synthesised using the recasting method with glutaraldehyde (GA) as a crosslinking agent. The resulting nanocomposite membranes were characterised using a variety of techniques, including X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The results of SEM revealed well-distributed zirconia phosphate (ZrP) within the membrane matrix, and the SEM images showed a uniform and dense membrane structure. Because ZrP nanoparticles are hydrophilic, the Nafion\u00ae\/PVA-ZrP nanocomposite membrane had a higher water uptake of 53% at 80 \u00b0C and higher 0.19 S\/cm proton conductivity at room temperature than the commercial Nafion\u00ae 117 membrane, which had only 34% and 0.113 S\/cm, respectively. In comparison to commercial Nafion\u00ae 117 membranes, PVA-ZrP and Nafion\u00ae\/PVA-ZrP nanocomposite membranes had a higher thermal stability and mechanical strength and lower methanol crossover due to the hydrophilic effect of PVA crosslinked with GA, which can make strong hydrogen bonds and cause an intense intramolecular interaction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes13120887","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,23]],"date-time":"2023-11-23T11:31:25Z","timestamp":1700739085000},"page":"887","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Polyvinyl Alcohol\/Nafion\u00ae\u2013Zirconia Phosphate Nanocomposite Membranes for Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell Applications: Synthesis and Characterisation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Rudzani","family":"Sigwadi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering, University of South Africa, Roodepoort 1710, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fulufhelo","family":"Nemavhola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Durban University of Technology, Durban 4000, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4671","DOI":"10.20964\/2020.05.34","article-title":"Electrochemical Impedance study of Proton Conducting Polymer Electrolytes based on PVC Doped with Thiocyanate and Plasticized with Glycerol","volume":"15","author":"Hadi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Electrochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2013.07.139","article-title":"Fabrication of polyacrylonitrile\/CuS composite nanofibers and their recycled application in catalysis for dye degradation","volume":"284","author":"Nie","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2019.e02240","article-title":"The proton conductivity and mechanical properties of Nafion\u00ae\/ZrP nanocomposite membrane","volume":"5","author":"Sigwadi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1386","DOI":"10.1002\/pat.5191","article-title":"State of the art and prospects in the development of proton-conducting perfluorinated membranes with short side chains: A review","volume":"32","author":"Primachenko","year":"2020","journal-title":"Polym. Adv. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"175","article-title":"Effect of relative humidity on mechanical strength of zirconia\/Nafion\u00ae Nano-composite membrane","volume":"7","author":"Nemavhola","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Comput. Appl. Res. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2005.06.036","article-title":"Hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity study of catalyst layers in proton exchange membrane fuel cells","volume":"51","author":"Yu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/s10965-022-02958-y","article-title":"Esterification modification and characterization of polyvinyl alcohol anion exchange membrane for direct methanol fuel cell","volume":"29","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Polym. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiec.2020.07.004","article-title":"Mechanical and thermal properties of carboxymethyl fibers (CMF)\/PVA based nanocomposite membranes","volume":"90","author":"Niazi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Ind. Eng. Chem."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1011578514047","article-title":"FTIR study of the thermal degradation of poly (vinyl alcohol)","volume":"64","author":"Thomas","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Therm. Anal. Calorim."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2009.02.001","article-title":"Radiation preparation of PVA\/CMC copolymers and their application in removal of dyes","volume":"168","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1021\/bm901254n","article-title":"Nanofiber composites of polyvinyl alcohol and cellulose nanocrystals: Manufacture and characterization","volume":"11","author":"Peresin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiec.2013.05.003","article-title":"Studies on the mechanical, thermal, morphological and barrier properties of nanocomposites based on poly (vinyl alcohol) and nanocellulose from sugarcane bagasse","volume":"20","author":"Mandal","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Ind. Eng. Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1021\/ma00230a023","article-title":"Crystallinity in perfluorosulfonic acid ionomers and related polymers","volume":"15","author":"Starkweather","year":"1982","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1922","DOI":"10.1016\/j.materresbull.2005.06.003","article-title":"Synthesis of amorphous supermicroporous zirconium phosphate materials by nonionic surfactant templating","volume":"40","author":"Zhao","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mater. Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2016.09.063","article-title":"Fabrication and characterization of polyvinyl alcohol\/metal (Ca, Mg, Ti) doped zirconium phosphate nanocomposite films for scaffold-guided tissue engineering application","volume":"71","author":"Kalita","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16748","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2012.02.148","article-title":"Improvement of PEMFC performance with Nafion\/inorganic nanocomposite membrane electrode assembly prepared by ultrasonic coating technique","volume":"37","author":"Devrim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrog. Energy"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sigwadi, R., Mokrani, T., Msomi, P., and Nemavhola, F. (2022). The Effect of Sulfated Zirconia and Zirconium Phosphate Nanocomposite Membranes on Fuel-Cell Efficiency. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14020263"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5961","DOI":"10.1016\/S0032-3861(98)00055-X","article-title":"TGA\u2013FTi.r. investigation of the thermal degradation of Nafion\u00ae and Nafion\u00ae\/[silicon oxide]-based nanocomposites","volume":"39","author":"Deng","year":"1998","journal-title":"Polymer"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2010.11.070","article-title":"Self-assembly of durable Nafion\/TiO2 nanowire electrolyte membranes for elevated-temperature PEM fuel cells","volume":"369","author":"Zhengbang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10965-020-02223-0","article-title":"Preparation and properties of glutaraldehyde crosslinked poly(vinyl alcohol) membrane with gradient structure","volume":"27","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Polym. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1007\/s40870-016-0052-8","article-title":"High Strain Rate Mechanics of Polymers: A Review","volume":"2","author":"Siviour","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Dyn. Behav. Mater."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2206591","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202206591","article-title":"Mechanically Strong, Freeze-Resistant, and Ionically Conductive Organohydrogels for Flexible Strain Sensors and Batteries","volume":"10","author":"Lyu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2075","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2012.09.050","article-title":"REMOVED: Preparation, Characterization and Application of a Novel PA\/SIO2 NF Membrane","volume":"44","author":"Shuili","year":"2012","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2009.06.045","article-title":"Composite membrane of sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) and sulfated poly(vinyl alcohol) for use in direct methanol fuel cells","volume":"342","author":"Yang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2096646","article-title":"Methanol Diffusion in Perfluorinated Ion-Exchange Membranes","volume":"136","author":"Verbrugge","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28287","DOI":"10.1039\/C8CP05301D","article-title":"Crosslinked PVA\/SSA proton exchange membranes: Correlation between physiochemical properties and free volume determined by positron annihilation spectroscopy","volume":"20","author":"Gomaa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1177\/1528083719844611","article-title":"Production of poly(vinyl alcohol)\/Nafion\u00ae nanofibers and their stability assessment for the use in direct methanol fuel cells","volume":"50","author":"Zizhou","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Ind. Text."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2005.07.026","article-title":"Composite silica\/Nafion\u00ae membranes prepared by tetraethylorthosilicate sol\u2013gel reaction and solution casting for direct methanol fuel cells","volume":"272","author":"Jiang","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abu-Saied, M.A., Soliman, E.A., Abualnaj, K.M., and El Desouky, E. (2021). Highly conductive polyelectrolyte membranes poly (vinyl alcohol)\/poly (2-acrylamido-2-methyl propane sulfonic acid)(PVA\/PAMPS) for fuel cell application. Polymers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym13162638"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26521","DOI":"10.1039\/D0RA04360E","article-title":"Novel cross-linked poly (vinyl alcohol)-based electrolyte membranes for fuel cell applications","volume":"10","author":"Kulasekaran","year":"2020","journal-title":"RSC Adv."}],"container-title":["Membranes"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0375\/13\/12\/887\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:28:47Z","timestamp":1760131727000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0375\/13\/12\/887"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,23]]},"references-count":30,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12]]}},"alternative-id":["membranes13120887"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/membranes13120887","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0375"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0375","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,23]]}}}