{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T20:36:58Z","timestamp":1790973418749,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,27]],"date-time":"2023-11-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701043200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"King Saud University","award":["RSPD2023R941"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RSPD2023R941"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Membranes"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Membrane technology has been embraced as a feasible and suitable substitute for conventional time- and energy-intensive biodiesel synthesis processes. It is ecofriendly, easier to run and regulate, and requires less energy than conventional approaches, with excellent stability. Therefore, the present study involved the synthesis and application of a highly reactive and recyclable Titania-based heterogeneous nanocatalyst (TiO2) for biodiesel production from nonedible Azadhiracta\u00a0indica seed oil via a membrane reactor, since Azadhiracta\u00a0indica is easily and widely accessible and has a rich oil content (39% w\/w). The high free fatty acids content (6.52 mg\/g KOH) of the nonedible oil was decreased to less than 1% via two-step esterification. Following the esterification, transesterification was performed using a heterogeneous TiO2 nanocatalyst under optimum conditions, such as a 9:1 methanol\u2013oil molar ratio, 90 \u00b0C reaction temperature, 2 wt.% catalyst loading, and an agitation rate of 600 rpm, and the biodiesel yield was optimized through response surface methodology (RSM). Azadhiracta\u00a0indica seed oil contains 68.98% unsaturated (61.01% oleic acid, 8.97% linoleic acid) and 31.02% saturated fatty acids (15.91% palmitic acid, 15.11% stearic acid). These fatty acids transformed into respective methyl esters, with a total yield up to 95% achieved. The biodiesel was analyzed via advanced characterization techniques like gas chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry (GC-MS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), whereas the catalyst was characterized via X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). Due to its physicochemical properties, Azadirachta\u00a0indica seed oil is a highly recommended feedstock for biodiesel production. Moreover, it is concluded that the Titania-based heterogeneous nanocatalyst (TiO2) is effective for high-quality liquid fuel synthesis from nonedible Azadirachta\u00a0indica seed oil in a membrane reactor, which could be an optional green route to cleaner production of bioenergy, eventually leading to sustenance, robustness, and resilience that will aid in developing a holistic framework for integrated waste management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes13120889","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,27]],"date-time":"2023-11-27T11:54:48Z","timestamp":1701086088000},"page":"889","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Cleaner Biofuel Production via Process Parametric Optimization of Nonedible Feedstock in a Membrane Reactor Using a Titania-Based Heterogeneous Nanocatalyst: An Aid to Sustainable Energy Development"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4771-5375","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Ameen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Capital Territory, Islamabad 15320, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2002-3907","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Zafar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Capital Territory, Islamabad 15320, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mushtaq","family":"Ahmad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Capital Territory, Islamabad 15320, Pakistan"},{"name":"Pakistan Academy of Sciences, Constitution Avenue, G-5\/2 G-5, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mamoona","family":"Munir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany, Rawalpindi Women University, 6th Rd., Satellite Town, Rawalpindi Punjab 46300, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Islem","family":"Abid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3501-7342","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abd El-Zaher M. A.","family":"Mustafa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohammad","family":"Athar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"California Department of Food and Agriculture, Pest Detection & Emergency Projects, 1220 \u2018N\u2019 Street, 2nd Floor, Sacramento, CA 95814, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2667-7960","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Trobjon","family":"Makhkamov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forestry and Landscape Design, Tashkent State Agrarian University, 2 A., Universitet Str., Kibray District, Tashkent 100700, Uzbekistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oybek","family":"Mamarakhimov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecological Monitoring, National University of Uzbekistan, 4 University Street, Tashkent 100174, Uzbekistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0692-7400","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Akramjon","family":"Yuldashev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology and Botany, Andijan State University, 129, Universitet Str., Andijan 170100, Uzbekistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Khislat","family":"Khaydarov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biochemistry, Samarkand State University, University blv. 15, Samarkand 140104, Uzbekistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Afat O.","family":"Mammadova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Botany and Plant Physiology, Baku State University, Baku 1148, Azerbaijan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laziza","family":"Botirova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicinal Plants and Botany, Gulistan State University, 4, Micro-District, Gulistan, Sirdarya 120100, Uzbekistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zokirjon","family":"Makkamov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Customs Regulation and Customs Payments, Customs Institute of the Customs Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan, Qazirabad 2-Street, 118, Tashkent 100071, Uzbekistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amin, M.F., Gnida, P., Kotowicz, S., Ma\u0142ecki, J.G., Siwy, M., Nitschke, P., and Schab-Balcerzak, E. 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