{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T15:05:31Z","timestamp":1769094331984,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1714694400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100013000","name":"Politecnico di Torino","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["58_RBA20TIRALB"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["58_RBA20TIRALB"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100013000","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100013000","name":"Politecnico di Torino","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["58_DIM20TIRLAB"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["58_DIM20TIRLAB"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100013000","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Eni S.p.a.","award":["58_RBA20TIRALB"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["58_RBA20TIRALB"]}]},{"name":"Eni S.p.a.","award":["58_DIM20TIRLAB"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["58_DIM20TIRLAB"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Membranes"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study assesses the technical feasibility of a forward-osmosis-based system for concentrating produced water and extracting freshwater. Forward osmosis was combined with nanofiltration, the latter system used to restore the initial osmotic pressure of the diluted draw solutions while concurrently obtaining the final freshwater product. Three draw solutions, namely, MgCl2, NaCl, and C3H5NaO2, were initially tested against a synthetic water mimicking a pretreated produced water effluent having an osmotic pressure equal to 16.3 bar. MgCl2 was thus selected for high-recovery experiments. Different combinations of draw solution osmotic pressure (30, 40, 60, 80, and 120) and draw-to-feed initial volume ratios (1, 1.6, and 2.2) were tested at the laboratory scale, achieving recovery rates between roughly 35% and 70% and water fluxes between 4 and 8 L m\u22122h\u22121. One-dimensional, system-wide simulations deploying the analytical FO water flux equation were utilized to validate the experiments, investigate co-current and counter-current configurations, and understand the system potential. The diluted draw solutions were then transferred to nanofiltration to regenerate their original osmotic pressure. There, the highest observed rejection was 96.6% with an average flux of 21 L m\u22122h\u22121, when running the system to achieve 100% relative recovery.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes14050107","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T05:52:02Z","timestamp":1714715522000},"page":"107","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Technical Feasibility of Extraction of Freshwater from Produced Water with Combined Forward Osmosis and Nanofiltration"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Madina","family":"Mohamed","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environment, Land and Infrastructure Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi, 24, 10129 Torino, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0915-0801","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Tagliabue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Eni S.p.A., Research and Development, Via F. Maritano, 26, 20097 San Donato M.se, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9859-1328","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alberto","family":"Tiraferri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environment, Land and Infrastructure Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi, 24, 10129 Torino, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100041","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyai.2020.100041","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence in Oil and Gas Upstream: Trends, Challenges, and Scenarios for the Future","volume":"3","author":"Koroteev","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy AI"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.erss.2023.103211","article-title":"Abandoning Fossil Fuel Production: What Can Be Learned from the Danish Phase-out of Oil and Gas?","volume":"103","author":"Madsen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Energy Res. Soc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3510","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.9b06390","article-title":"Will Water Issues Constrain Oil and Gas Production in the United States?","volume":"54","author":"Scanlon","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2017.10.139","article-title":"State of the Art of Produced Water Treatment","volume":"192","author":"Arnaldos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2013.02.029","article-title":"Wastewater Management and Marcellus Shale Gas Development: Trends, Drivers, and Planning Implications","volume":"120","author":"Rahm","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2019.02.001","article-title":"Produced Water Characteristics, Treatment and Reuse: A Review","volume":"28","author":"Ashfaq","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.09.069","article-title":"Quantity of Flowback and Produced Waters from Unconventional Oil and Gas Exploration","volume":"574","author":"Kondash","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2014.09.007","article-title":"Challenges and Trends in Membrane Technology Implementation for Produced Water Treatment: A Review","volume":"4","author":"Alzahrani","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2009.05.044","article-title":"Review of Technologies for Oil and Gas Produced Water Treatment","volume":"170","author":"Pendashteh","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139850","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2022.139850","article-title":"Onshore Oilfield Produced Water Treatment by Hybrid Microfiltration-Biological Process Using Kaolin Based Ceramic Membrane and Oleaginous Rhodococcus Opacus","volume":"453","author":"Purnima","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2019.01.001","article-title":"Potential and Implemented Membrane-Based Technologies for the Treatment and Reuse of Flowback and Produced Water from Shale Gas and Oil Plays: A Review","volume":"455","author":"Chang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12540","DOI":"10.1021\/acssuschemeng.2c02170","article-title":"Safety and Technical Feasibility of Sustainable Reuse of Shale Gas Flowback and Produced Water after Advanced Treatment Aimed at Wheat Irrigation","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2018.04.010","article-title":"Optimal Selection of an Integrated Produced Water Treatment System in the Upstream of Oil Industry","volume":"117","author":"Bagheri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Process Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2016.05.051","article-title":"A Review of the Issues and Treatment Options for Wastewater from Shale Gas Extraction by Hydraulic Fracturing","volume":"182","author":"Estrada","year":"2016","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2016.07.008","article-title":"Hybrid Membrane Bio-Systems for Sustainable Treatment of Oil and Gas Produced Water and Fracturing Flowback Water","volume":"171","author":"Riley","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120652","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2022.120652","article-title":"New Advancements, Challenges, and Future Needs on Treatment of Oilfield Produced Water: A State-of-the-Art Review","volume":"289","author":"Ghafoori","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2020.118007","article-title":"Oil-in-Water Separation with Graphene-Based Nanocomposite Membranes for Produced Water Treatment","volume":"603","author":"Alammar","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2007.01.147","article-title":"Desalination of Produced Water from Oil Production Fields by Membrane Processes","volume":"222","author":"Kayaalp","year":"2008","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2013.11.014","article-title":"The Sweet Spot of Forward Osmosis: Treatment of Produced Water, Drilling Wastewater, and Other Complex and Difficult Liquid Streams","volume":"333","author":"Coday","year":"2014","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2009.09.088","article-title":"Investigations on the Use of Different Ceramic Membranes for Efficient Oil-Field Produced Water Treatment","volume":"250","author":"Ebrahimi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2018.02.029","article-title":"Produced Water Impact on Membrane Integrity During Extended Pilot Testing of Forward Osmosis\u2013Reverse Osmosis Treatment","volume":"440","author":"Maltos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mat Nawi, N.I., Bilad, M.R., Anath, G., Nordin, N.A., Kurnia, J.C., Wibisono, Y., and Arahman, N. (2020). The Water Flux Dynamic in a Hybrid Forward Osmosis-Membrane Distillation for Produced Water Treatment. Membranes, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes10090225"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2016.01.010","article-title":"Use of Membrane Technology for Oil Field and Refinery Produced Water Treatment\u2014A Review","volume":"100","author":"Munirasu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Process Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2014.11.023","article-title":"Membrane Technology Enhancement in Oil\u2013Water Separation. A Review","volume":"357","author":"Padaki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2021.114015","article-title":"Optimization of Physico-Chemical and Membrane Filtration Processes to Remove High Molecular Weight Polymers from Produced Water in Enhanced Oil Recovery Operations","volume":"302","author":"Ricceri","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14964","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-51167-z","article-title":"Desalination of Produced Water by Membrane Distillation: Effect of the Feed Components and of a Pre-Treatment by Fenton Oxidation","volume":"9","author":"Ricceri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2022.138479","article-title":"Performance and Implications of Forward Osmosis-Membrane Distillation Hybrid System for Simultaneous Treatment of Different Real Produced Water Streams","volume":"450","author":"Alamoudi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2018.12.075","article-title":"Integrated Electrocoagulation\u2013Forward Osmosis\u2013Membrane Distillation for Sustainable Water Recovery from Hydraulic Fracturing Produced Water","volume":"574","author":"Sardari","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2017.06.065","article-title":"Characterization of Fouling Processes in Ceramic Membranes Used for the Recovery and Recycle of Oil Sands Produced Water","volume":"540","author":"Thibault","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2016.04.001","article-title":"Ceramic Membrane Filtration of Produced Water: Impact of Membrane Module","volume":"165","author":"Zsirai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2019.117187","article-title":"Evaluating the Performance of Gravity-Driven Membrane Filtration as Desalination Pretreatment of Shale Gas Flowback and Produced Water","volume":"587","author":"Chang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10926","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.0c03243","article-title":"On-Site Treatment of Shale Gas Flowback and Produced Water in Sichuan Basin by Fertilizer Drawn Forward Osmosis for Irrigation","volume":"54","author":"Chang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2018.04.136","article-title":"Oilfield Produced Water Treatment to Clean Water Using Integrated Activated Carbon-Bentonite Adsorbent and Double Stages Membrane Process","volume":"347","author":"Kusworo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116058","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2019.116058","article-title":"Integrated Treatment for Oil Free Petroleum Produced Water Using Novel Resin Composite Followed by Microfiltration","volume":"234","author":"Mansour","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120957","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2022.120957","article-title":"A Scalable Method to Fabricate High-Performance Biomimetic Membranes for Seawater Desalination: Incorporating Pillar[5]Arene Water Nanochannels into the Polyamide Selective Layer","volume":"661","author":"Lim","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2021.119292","article-title":"Seawater Desalination by Reverse Osmosis: Current Development and Future Challenges in Membrane Fabrication\u2014A Review","volume":"629","author":"Lim","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113698","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2019.113698","article-title":"Membrane Distillation Hybrids for Water Production and Energy Efficiency Enhancement: A Critical Review","volume":"254","author":"Ghaffour","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101752","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jwpe.2020.101752","article-title":"Inclined Forward Osmosis Module System for Fouling Control in Sustainable Produced Water Treatment Using Seawater as Draw Solution","volume":"40","author":"Hizam","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Water Process Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2020.118457","article-title":"Factors Affecting the Performance of Forward Osmosis Treatment for Oilfield Produced Water from Surfactant-Polymer Flooding","volume":"615","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.10.325","article-title":"Forward Osmosis Remediation of High Salinity Permian Basin Produced Water from Unconventional Oil and Gas Development","volume":"653","author":"Liden","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.04.061","article-title":"Comparison of the Degree of Fouling at Various Flux Rates and Modes of Operation Using Forward Osmosis for Remediation of Produced Water from Unconventional Oil and Gas Development","volume":"675","author":"Liden","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2015.08.008","article-title":"Application of Forward Osmosis for Reducing Volume of Produced\/Process Water from Oil and Gas Operations","volume":"376","author":"Hussain","year":"2015","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2021.117157","article-title":"Investigation of Flux Stability and Fouling Mechanism During Simultaneous Treatment of Different Produced Water Streams Using Forward Osmosis and Membrane Distillation","volume":"198","author":"Nawaz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2017.06.002","article-title":"An Overview on Exploration and Environmental Impact of Unconventional Gas Sources and Treatment Options for Produced Water","volume":"200","author":"Silva","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1080\/19443994.2013.827292","article-title":"Removal of Dissolved Organics from Produced Water by Forward Osmosis","volume":"52","author":"Abousnina","year":"2014","journal-title":"Desalin. Water Treat."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1080\/23249676.2021.1958712","article-title":"Forward Osmosis Performance in Extracting Water from Produced Water","volume":"10","author":"Ahmadizadeh","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Appl. Water Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107621","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cep.2019.107621","article-title":"A Hybrid Electro-Coagulation\/Forward Osmosis System for Treatment of Produced Water","volume":"143","author":"Benamor","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Process. Process Intensif."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2016.10.032","article-title":"Produced Water Treatment Using Forward Osmosis Membranes: Evaluation of Extended-Time Performance and Fouling","volume":"525","author":"Bell","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2015.03.059","article-title":"Forward Osmosis Desalination of Oil and Gas Wastewater: Impacts of Membrane Selection and Operating Conditions on Process Performance","volume":"488","author":"Coday","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E55","DOI":"10.5942\/jawwa.2014.106.0016","article-title":"Forward Osmosis: Novel Desalination of Produced Water and Fracturing Flowback","volume":"106","author":"Coday","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. AWWA"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2019.01.014","article-title":"Desalination of Brackish Groundwater and Reuse of Wastewater by Forward Osmosis Coupled with Nanofiltration for Draw Solution Recovery","volume":"153","author":"Giagnorio","year":"2019","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2014.03.008","article-title":"A Review on the Applicability of Integrated\/Hybrid Membrane Processes in Water Treatment and Desalination Plants","volume":"363","author":"Ang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salinas-Rodr\u00edguez, S.G., and Villacorte, L.O. (2024). Experimental Methods for Membrane Applications in Desalination and Water Treatment, IWA Publishing.","DOI":"10.2166\/9781789062977"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22980","DOI":"10.1080\/19443994.2015.1108427","article-title":"Forward Osmosis for Treatment of Oil Sands Produced Water: Systematic Study of Influential Parameters","volume":"57","author":"Bhinder","year":"2016","journal-title":"Desalin. Water Treat."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2015.02.025","article-title":"Treatment of Shale Gas Drilling Flowback Fluids (Sgdfs) by Forward Osmosis: Membrane Fouling and Mitigation","volume":"366","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2013.05.023","article-title":"A Method for the Simultaneous Determination of Transport and Structural Parameters of Forward Osmosis Membranes","volume":"444","author":"Tiraferri","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giagnorio, M., Ricceri, F., Tagliabue, M., Zaninetta, L., and Tiraferri, A. (2019). Hybrid Forward Osmosis\u2013Nanofiltration for Wastewater Reuse: System Design. Membranes, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes9050061"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116083","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2022.116083","article-title":"Coupling of Forward Osmosis with Desalination Technologies: System-Scale Analysis at the Water-Energy Nexus","volume":"543","author":"Giagnorio","year":"2022","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106498","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2021.106498","article-title":"Environmental Sustainability of Forward Osmosis: The Role of Draw Solute and Its Management","volume":"152","author":"Giagnorio","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117550","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2024.117550","article-title":"Modeling and Multi-Objective Optimization of Forward Osmosis Process","volume":"580","author":"Kegl","year":"2024","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2014.12.017","article-title":"High Recovery Rate Nf\u2013Fo\u2013Ro Hybrid System for Inland Brackish Water Treatment","volume":"363","author":"Altaee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Desalination"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.memsci.2018.03.015","article-title":"Osmotically Enhanced Dewatering-Reverse Osmosis (Oed-Ro) Hybrid System: Implications for Shale Gas Produced Water Treatment","volume":"554","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Membr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.desal.2014.12.011","article-title":"Opportunities to Reach Economic Sustainability in Forward Osmosis\u2013Reverse Osmosis Hybrids for Seawater Desalination","volume":"363","author":"Blandin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Desalination"}],"container-title":["Membranes"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0375\/14\/5\/107\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:39:16Z","timestamp":1760107156000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0375\/14\/5\/107"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5]]}},"alternative-id":["membranes14050107"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/membranes14050107","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0375"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0375","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]]}}}