{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T06:00:33Z","timestamp":1786946433527,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780617600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Membranes"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Forward osmosis (FO) offers a promising route for urine concentration and nutrient recovery, yet inorganic scaling under high water recovery remains a significant challenge. This study systematically investigated scaling during FO treatment of synthetic fresh urine (SFU) and synthetic hydrolysed urine (SHU) over three consecutive cycles to 80% water recovery. SFU exhibited moderate flux decline (~14.4 \u2192 4\u20135 LMH), with minimal hydraulic resistance from sparse calcium-deficient Ca\u2013P deposits (Ca:P \u2248 1.2; ACP\/OCP-like). In contrast, SHU caused severe cumulative scaling, progressively reducing flux from 19 \u2192 14.46 \u2192 1.3 LMH, dominated by struvite (Mg:P \u2248 1.02) and mixed Mg\u2013carbonate phases. Visual MINTEQ thermodynamic modelling correctly identified the dominant mineral families in both feeds, while kinetic effects governed the formation of metastable phases, demonstrating that equilibrium modelling and experimental characterisation are complementary tools for scaling prediction under transient FO conditions. Physical cleaning restored ~98\u201399% of water flux for both feeds, confirming that even severe SHU-induced scaling is largely hydraulically reversible. High rejection of multivalent ions (PO43\u2212, Mg2+, and Ca2+) was maintained throughout, confirming membrane integrity was preserved despite severe scaling. These findings demonstrate that urine hydrolysis fundamentally governs scaling pathways, severity, and reversibility in FO systems, and that simple hydraulic flushing is an effective fouling-control strategy, providing practical guidance for operating condition selection and cleaning strategy design in FO-based urine treatment applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes16060197","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T08:43:04Z","timestamp":1780648984000},"page":"197","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Inorganic Scaling Mechanisms During Forward Osmosis Concentration of Fresh vs. Hydrolysed Urine: Theoretical Modelling and Experimental Validation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Maano","family":"Tshimange","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, Surrey, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3762-1199","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u1e4aamadzavho Enos","family":"Sitabule","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sasol Research & Technology, Sasolburg 1947, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5808-2983","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Judy","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, Surrey, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5228-8534","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Siddharth","family":"Gadkari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, Surrey, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3386","DOI":"10.1021\/es405266d","article-title":"Mining nutrients (N, K, P) from urban source-separated urine by forward osmosis dewatering","volume":"48","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. 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