{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T05:21:32Z","timestamp":1788153692270,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787875200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100015965","name":"Yunnan Power Grid Co., Ltd.","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["YNKJXM20240442"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YNKJXM20240442"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100015965","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Membranes"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A leaf-vein\u2013serpentine composite flow field (L-SFF) is proposed to improve reactant distribution, water management, and electrochemical performance of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). The L-SFF consists of a main trunk and multilevel branches inspired by coconut palm leaf veins, with a branching angle of 45\u00b0 and a branch width of 2 mm. Three-dimensional multiphysics models of the traditional serpentine flow field (SPFF), cathode leaf-vein\u2013serpentine flow field (S-LFF), and anode leaf\u2013vein\u2013serpentine flow field (L-SFF) were developed using COMSOL Multiphysics 6.1 to investigate current density, membrane water content, temperature distribution, and power output. Under 0.6 V, 353 K, and 1 bar conditions, the L-SFF achieves a maximum power density of 0.538 W\u00b7cm\u22122, approximately 2.1% higher than SPFF, with an average anode current density of 7092.0 A\u00b7m\u22122 and a current-density uniformity index of 0.135. The L-SFF also exhibits improved membrane water distribution, with an average water mole fraction of 0.513, and maintains an average membrane temperature of 356.61 K. Furthermore, the effect of GDL porosity on performance was evaluated. When the GDL porosity decreases from 0.8 to 0.2, the maximum power density decreases from 0.534 to 0.474 W\u00b7cm\u22122 for SPFF (11.2%) and from 0.547 to 0.489 W\u00b7cm\u22122 for L-SFF (10.6%), indicating better tolerance to variations in porous transport properties. The results demonstrate that the L-SFF structure enhances reactant transport, water management, and performance stability, providing an effective strategy for PEMFC flow-field optimization.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes16090287","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T04:24:03Z","timestamp":1788150243000},"page":"287","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A Leaf-Vein-Inspired Composite Flow Channel for Enhanced Mass Transport and Performance in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Tingjie","family":"Ba","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Yunnan Power Grid Co., Ltd., Kunming 650000, China"},{"name":"Faculty of Traffic Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongyi","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Diqing Power Supply Bureau, Yunnan Power Grid Co., Ltd., Diqing 674400, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wanjun","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Diqing Power Supply Bureau, Yunnan Power Grid Co., Ltd., Diqing 674400, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dong","family":"Jiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Diqing Power Supply Bureau, Yunnan Power Grid Co., Ltd., Diqing 674400, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yongyuan","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Traffic Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2258","DOI":"10.1360\/TB-2021-0133","article-title":"Numerical investigation on the nano\/microscale transport processes in proton exchange membrane fuel cells: A review","volume":"67","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chin. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuproc.2026.108423","article-title":"Recent development in the design of proton exchange membrane fuel cell stack: Theory, integration and prospective","volume":"284","author":"Wang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Fuel Process Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101028","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mser.2025.101028","article-title":"Advances and challenges in micro-porous layer design for commercialization of proton exchange membrane fuel cell","volume":"165","author":"Ye","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. R"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125753","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2025.125753","article-title":"Recent advancements in designing high-performance proton exchange membrane fuel cells: A comprehensive review","volume":"390","author":"Ahmed","year":"2025","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"074507","DOI":"10.1149\/1945-7111\/ae5740","article-title":"Physics-Based Modeling of Platinum Catalyst Dissolution and Oxidation in PEM Fuel Cells: A Focused Review","volume":"173","author":"Agravante","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227995","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2020.227995","article-title":"A new highly active and CO2-stable perovskite-type cathode material for solid oxide fuel cells developed from A- and B-site cation synergy","volume":"457","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120058","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2022.120058","article-title":"Review on system mitigation strategies for start-stop degradation of automotive proton exchange membrane fuel cell","volume":"327","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38051","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2021.09.047","article-title":"Comparative study of a hybrid research vessel utilizing batteries or hydrogen fuel cells","volume":"46","author":"Klebanoff","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bunyan, S., Dhahad, H., Khudhur, D., and Yusaf, T. (2023). The Effect of Flow Field Design Parameters on the Performance of PEMFC: A Review. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su151310389"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e39793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e39793","article-title":"Comprehensive review of serpentine flow field for thermal management of proton exchange membrane fuel cell","volume":"10","author":"Ahmed","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"112884","article-title":"Recent Advances in Flow Field Designs for PEMFC Mass Transport Enhancement: A Review","volume":"168","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Liao, X., Liu, G., Xu, H., Guan, C., Wang, H., Li, H., He, W., and Qin, Y. (2023). Review of Flow Field Designs for Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells. Energies, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/en16104207"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xuan, L., Wang, Y., Mei, D., and Lan, J. (2021). Design and Modelling of 3D Bionic Cathode Flow Field for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell. Energies, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/en14196044"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2022.126442","article-title":"Evaluating the effect of refined flow channels in a developed biomimetic flow field on PEMFC performance","volume":"266","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110484","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dib.2024.110484","article-title":"Dataset of the liquid water distribution in a biomimetic PEM fuel cell","volume":"54","author":"Iranzo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Data Brief."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113639","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2023.113639","article-title":"Semiconductor-membrane fuel cell (SMFC) for renewable energy technology","volume":"185","author":"Shah","year":"2023","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2024.08.014","article-title":"Optimization design of proton exchange membrane fuel cells with bio-inspired leaf vein flow channels","volume":"190","author":"Gao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Process Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"101398","article-title":"Mechanistic and optimization based analysis of bio inspired multiscale flow fields for water management in PEM fuel cells","volume":"7","author":"Alrwashdeh","year":"2026","journal-title":"Int. J. Electrochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151379","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2025.151379","article-title":"Experimental investigation of the biomimetic leaf-type flow field with inserting blocks for fuel cells","volume":"173","author":"Jian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2016.10.053","article-title":"Flow field bipolar plates in a proton exchange membrane fuel cell: Analysis & modeling","volume":"133","author":"Kahraman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1644","DOI":"10.1021\/acsmaterialslett.6c00363","article-title":"Multiscale pore structures across proton exchange membrane fuel cell components","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2026","journal-title":"ACS Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1007\/s11696-022-02532-2","article-title":"Bionic flow field research and optimization of PEMFC with multi-branch veins","volume":"77","author":"Yao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chem. Pap."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2021.114707","article-title":"Design and optimization of a novel composite bionic flow field structure using three-dimensional multiphase computational fluid dynamic method for proton exchange membrane fuel cell","volume":"247","author":"Xia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2024.122317","article-title":"Flow field design and parameter optimization of PEMFC based on leaf vein structure","volume":"241","author":"Xiao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100613","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sftr.2025.100613","article-title":"Performance improvement of PEMFC by employing bionic flow channel","volume":"9","author":"Han","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sustain. Futur."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13601","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2018.12.160","article-title":"Novel hybrid serpentine-interdigitated flow field with multi-inlets and outlets of gas flow channels for PEFC applications","volume":"25","author":"Limjeerajarus","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2024.122315","article-title":"Enhancing power density of PEMFC with narrow distribution zone using parallel serpentine hybrid flow field","volume":"241","author":"Kim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1683","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.3c08298","article-title":"Optimization of Flow Channels in a PEM Fuel Cell Based on a Multiobjective Evaluation","volume":"9","author":"Jiang","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"35038","article-title":"Improvement of the three-dimensional fine-mesh flow field of proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) using CFD modeling, artificial neural network and genetic algorithm","volume":"82","author":"Ze","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124944","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2022.124944","article-title":"Optimal design of a hybrid power generation system based on integrating PEM fuel cell and PEM electrolyzer as a moderator for micro-renewable energy systems","volume":"260","author":"Abdollahipour","year":"2022","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2024.05.153","article-title":"An experimental study on PEMFC water management based on the synergistic interaction of flow field and MPL","volume":"69","author":"Lou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012076","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/2893\/1\/012076","article-title":"Accuracy estimation of a CFD multiphysics approach to study a mixed parallel and serpentine flow channels PEM fuel cell","volume":"2893","author":"Ginkel","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.33961\/jecst.2023.01074","article-title":"Research and Optimization of Four Serpentine-Wave Flow Fields in PEMFC","volume":"15","author":"Yan","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Electrochem Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, Q., and Zheng, M. (2021). CFD Simulation and Performance Investigation on a Novel Bionic Spider-Web-Type Flow Field for PEM Fuel Cells. Processes, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr9091526"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.energy.2025.138317","article-title":"Flow fields optimization for PEMFC performance improvement","volume":"337","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Energy"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127025","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127025","article-title":"Pore network simulation of HT-PEMFC GDL using radical Voronoi tessellation: Analysis of oxygen, phosphoric acid solution, and charge transport","volume":"246","author":"Wei","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Heat Mass Transf."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137814","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2021.137814","article-title":"Effect of the porosity distribution on the liquid water transport in the gas diffusion layer of PEMFC","volume":"371","author":"Shang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Electrochim Acta"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237024","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2025.237024","article-title":"Water distribution and transmission within perforated and layered gas diffusion layers of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell","volume":"643","author":"Sun","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123047","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2025.123047","article-title":"A biomimetic airfoil flow field to improve mass transfer and gas distribution of PEMFC","volume":"247","author":"Jiang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113460","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2024.113460","article-title":"Numerical and experimental study on fractal flow field for improving the performance of non-aqueous redox flow battery","volume":"100","author":"Shi","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2008.05.009","article-title":"Thermal management issues in a PEMFC stack\u2014A brief review of current status","volume":"29","author":"Kandlikar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"441","article-title":"Effects of cathode channel size and operating conditions on the performance of air-blowing PEMFCs","volume":"111","author":"Bosung","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2025.150570","article-title":"Optimization of convergent-divergent flow field for large-scale proton exchange membrane fuel cells based on the numerical model, artificial neural network and genetic algorithm","volume":"158","author":"Yan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7460","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2022.11.201","article-title":"Numerical study of PEMFC heat and mass transfer characteristics based on roughness interface thermal resistance model","volume":"20","author":"Shang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"}],"container-title":["Membranes"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0375\/16\/9\/287\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T04:58:56Z","timestamp":1788152336000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0375\/16\/9\/287"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["membranes16090287"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/membranes16090287","relation":{},"ISSN":["2077-0375"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2077-0375","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]}}}