{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T16:31:33Z","timestamp":1782837093752,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":125,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,4]],"date-time":"2020-12-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1607040000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Metabolites"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Some differences regarding Vitamin D metabolism are described in dogs and cats in comparison with humans, which may be explained by an evolutionary drive among these species. Similarly, vitamin D is one of the most important regulators of mineral metabolism in dogs and cats, as well as in humans. Mineral metabolism is intrinsically related to bone metabolism, thus disturbances in vitamin D have been implicated in the development of chronic kidney disease mineral and bone disorders (CKD-MBD) in people, in addition to dogs and cats. Vitamin D deficiency may be associated with Renal Secondary Hyperparathyroidism (RSHPT), which is the most common mineral disorder in later stages of CKD in dogs and cats. Herein, we review the peculiarities of vitamin D metabolism in these species in comparison with humans, and the role of vitamin D disturbances in the development of CKD-MBD among dogs, cats, and people. Comparative studies may offer some evidence to help further research about vitamin D metabolism and bone disorders in CKD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo10120499","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,4]],"date-time":"2020-12-04T11:59:00Z","timestamp":1607083140000},"page":"499","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Vitamin D Metabolism and Its Role in Mineral and Bone Disorders in Chronic Kidney Disease in Humans, Dogs and Cats"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8683-9960","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernanda C.","family":"Chacar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of South of Minas Gerais (IFSULDEMINAS), Muzambinho 37890-000, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M\u00e1rcia M.","family":"Kogika","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 05508-270, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rafael V. A.","family":"Zafalon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pet Nutrology Research Center, Nutrition and Production Department, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of S\u00e3o Paulo, Pirassununga 13635-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marcio A.","family":"Brunetto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pet Nutrology Research Center, Nutrition and Production Department, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of S\u00e3o Paulo, Pirassununga 13635-900, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(11)60178-5","article-title":"Chronic kidney disease","volume":"379","author":"Levey","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1238","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)32064-5","article-title":"Chronic Kidney Disease","volume":"389","author":"Webster","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)60687-X","article-title":"Chronic kidney disease: Global dimension and perspectives","volume":"382","author":"Jha","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2017). Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD Work Group KDIGO 2017 Clinical Practice Guideline Update for the Diagnosis, Evaluation, Prevention, and Treatment of Chronic Kidney Disease\u2013Mineral and Bone Disorder (CKD-MBD). Kidney Int. Suppl., 7, 60.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kisu.2017.04.001"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvsm.2012.04.008","article-title":"Chronic Kidney Disease in Dogs and Cats","volume":"42","author":"Bartges","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Small Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvsm.2010.09.004","article-title":"Chronic Kidney Disease in Small Animals","volume":"41","author":"Polzin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Small Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1111\/vec.12030","article-title":"Renal pathophysiology: Lessons learned from the canine remnant kidney model: Canine remnant kidney model","volume":"23","author":"Brown","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Vet. Emerg. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1042\/cs0600273","article-title":"Renal Phosphate Adaptation in Uraemic Dogs with a Remnant Kidney","volume":"60","author":"Wen","year":"1981","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.1999.tb02204.x","article-title":"Progression of Chronic Renal Disease in the Dog","volume":"13","author":"Finco","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.V2170","article-title":"Remnant Kidney Metabolism in the Dog","volume":"2","author":"Fine","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1002","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.1995.269.5.R1002","article-title":"Single-nephron adaptations to partial renal ablation in cats","volume":"269","author":"Brown","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.69.1015","article-title":"Effects of Benazepril Hydrochloride in Cats with Experimentally Induced or Spontaneously Occurring Chronic Renal Failure","volume":"69","author":"Watanabe","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1006","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2004.65.1006","article-title":"Evaluation of a technique of inducing hypertensive renal insufficiency in cats","volume":"65","author":"Mathur","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lawson, J.S., Liu, H.-H., Syme, H.M., Purcell, R., Wheeler-Jones, C.P.D., and Elliott, J. (2018). The cat as a naturally occurring model of renal interstitial fibrosis: Characterisation of primary feline proximal tubular epithelial cells and comparative pro-fibrotic effects of TGF-\u03b21. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0202577"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1177\/0300985812453176","article-title":"Histomorphometry of Feline Chronic Kidney Disease and Correlation with Markers of Renal Dysfunction","volume":"50","author":"Chakrabarti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hill, N.R., Fatoba, S.T., Oke, J.L., Hirst, J.A., O\u2019Callaghan, C.A., Lasserson, D.S., and Hobbs, F.D.R. (2016). Global Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease\u2014A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0158765"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Q.-L., and Rothenbacher, D. (2008). Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in population-based studies: Systematic review. BMC Public Health, 8.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-8-117"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.298.17.2038","article-title":"Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease in the United States","volume":"298","author":"Coresh","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"(2010). Prevalence of chronic renal disease in Spain: Results of the EPIRCE study. Nefrolog\u00eda, 30, 78\u201386."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S23","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2009.09.035","article-title":"Prevalence of CKD and Comorbid Illness in Elderly Patients in the United States: Results From the Kidney Early Evaluation Program (KEEP)","volume":"55","author":"Stevens","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1977","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15322","article-title":"Factors associated with survival in dogs with chronic kidney disease","volume":"32","author":"Rudinsky","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pedrinelli, V., Lima, D.M., Duarte, C.N., Teixeira, F.A., Porsani, M., Zarif, C., Amaral, A.R., Vendramini, T.H.A., Kogika, M.M., and Brunetto, M.A. (2020). Nutritional and laboratory parameters affect the survival of dogs with chronic kidney disease. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0234712"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2008.0163.x","article-title":"Survival in Cats with Naturally Occurring Chronic Kidney Disease (2000\u20132002)","volume":"22","author":"Boyd","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.244.3.320","article-title":"Risk factors associated with the development of chronic kidney disease in cats evaluated at primary care veterinary hospitals","volume":"244","author":"Greene","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.13917","article-title":"Risk Factors for Development of Chronic Kidney Disease in Cats","volume":"30","author":"Finch","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.13832","article-title":"Correlation of Urine and Serum Biomarkers with Renal Damage and Survival in Dogs with Naturally Occurring Proteinuric Chronic Kidney Disease","volume":"30","author":"Hokamp","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"906","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2007.tb03042.x","article-title":"Prognostic Factors in Cats with Chronic Kidney Disease","volume":"21","author":"King","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Jensen-Jarolim, E. (2017). Chronic Kidney Failure Affects Humans and Other Mammalians. Comparative Medicine, Springer International Publishing."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kisu.2017.07.003","article-title":"Reducing major risk factors for chronic kidney disease","volume":"7","author":"Luyckx","year":"2017","journal-title":"Kidney Int. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.2147\/IJNRD.S39739","article-title":"Obesity, hypertension, and chronic kidney disease","volume":"7","author":"Hall","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Nephrol. Renov. Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1884","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.166.17.1884","article-title":"Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors in Chronic Kidney Disease: Overall Burden and Rates of Treatment and Control","volume":"166","author":"Parikh","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2012070642","article-title":"Cardiovascular Risk Factors in CKD Associate with Both ESRD and Mortality","volume":"24","author":"Muntner","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1038\/kisup.2013.79","article-title":"Risk factors for chronic kidney disease: An update","volume":"3","year":"2013","journal-title":"Kidney Int. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/1098612X13495234","article-title":"Feline CKD: Pathophysiology and risk factors\u2014What do we know?","volume":"15","author":"Reynolds","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Feline Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.12968\/coan.2015.20.1.15","article-title":"Pathophysiology of chronic kidney disease","volume":"20","author":"Bird","year":"2015","journal-title":"Companion Anim."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1177\/0300985815612153","article-title":"Aging in the Canine Kidney","volume":"53","author":"Cianciolo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1177\/0300985815622975","article-title":"Chronic Kidney Disease in Aged Cats: Clinical Features, Morphology, and Proposed Pathogeneses","volume":"53","author":"Brown","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcpa.2009.10.011","article-title":"Ageing, Immunosenescence and Inflammageing in the Dog and Cat","volume":"142","author":"Day","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Comp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.3904\/kjim.2011.26.2.113","article-title":"Klotho and the Aging Process","volume":"26","year":"2011","journal-title":"Korean J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneph.2017.169","article-title":"Novel treatment strategies for chronic kidney disease: Insights from the animal kingdom","volume":"14","author":"Stenvinkel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2010.12.027","article-title":"Role of Klotho in Aging, Phosphate Metabolism, and CKD","volume":"58","author":"John","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcpa.2019.05.006","article-title":"Renal Infiltration of Macrophages in Canine and Feline Chronic Kidney Disease","volume":"170","author":"Ohara","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Comp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2009.09.003","article-title":"Comparative study of chronic kidney disease in dogs and cats: Induction of myofibroblasts","volume":"88","author":"Yabuki","year":"2010","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2011.12.017","article-title":"A comparative study of chronic kidney disease in dogs and cats: Induction of cyclooxygenases","volume":"93","author":"Yabuki","year":"2012","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1515\/BC.2008.028","article-title":"Klotho as a regulator of oxidative stress and senescence","volume":"389","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2020.00560","article-title":"Klotho, Aging, and the Failing Kidney","volume":"11","author":"Buchanan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mad.2010.02.008","article-title":"A potential link between phosphate and aging\u2014Lessons from Klotho-deficient mice","volume":"131","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mech. Ageing Dev."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1038\/36285","article-title":"Mutation of the mouse klotho gene leads to a syndrome resembling ageing","volume":"390","author":"Matsumura","year":"1997","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2009121311","article-title":"Klotho Deficiency Causes Vascular Calcification in Chronic Kidney Disease","volume":"22","author":"Hu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S20","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2011.26","article-title":"Phosphate and Klotho","volume":"79","year":"2011","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"jae Yi, H., bok Lee, J., pil Lee, K., Oh, Y.-I., ho Song, K., and won Seo, K. (2020). Investigation on urinary and serum alpha klotho in dogs with chronic kidney disease. BMC Vet. Res., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-020-02458-5"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-0887-1_9","article-title":"Secreted Klotho and Chronic Kidney Disease","volume":"Volume 728","year":"2012","journal-title":"Endocrine FGFs and Klothos"},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"143","article-title":"Secreted Klotho protein in sera and CSF: Implication for post-translational cleavage in release of Klotho protein from cell membrane","volume":"565","author":"Imura","year":"2004","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cytogfr.2012.01.004","article-title":"FGF23\/Klotho axis: Phosphorus, mineral metabolism and beyond","volume":"23","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cytokine Growth Factor Rev."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneph.2013.111","article-title":"Klotho, phosphate and FGF-23 in ageing and disturbed mineral metabolism","volume":"9","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"561","article-title":"Immunohistochemical Staining of Alpha-Klotho Protein in Feline Kidney Tissue","volume":"32","author":"Lawson","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1370","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2011.47","article-title":"Fibroblast growth factor 23 is elevated before parathyroid hormone and phosphate in chronic kidney disease","volume":"79","author":"Isakova","year":"2011","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.12036","article-title":"Fibroblast Growth Factor 23 (FGF-23) Concentrations in Cats with Early Nonazotemic Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) and in Healthy Geriatric Cats","volume":"27","author":"Finch","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.14653","article-title":"Association of Vitamin D Metabolites with Parathyroid Hormone, Fibroblast Growth Factor-23, Calcium, and Phosphorus in Dogs with Various Stages of Chronic Kidney Disease","volume":"31","author":"Parker","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-004-1788-2","article-title":"Are new vitamin D analogues in renal bone disease superior to calcitriol?","volume":"20","author":"Salusky","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pediatr. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1001\/archinternmed.2007.110","article-title":"Association of Activated Vitamin D Treatment and Mortality in Chronic Kidney Disease","volume":"168","author":"Kovesdy","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"840","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-147-12-200712180-00004","article-title":"Meta-analysis: Vitamin D Compounds in Chronic Kidney Disease","volume":"147","author":"Palmer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"705","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-004-1478-0","article-title":"New vitamin D analogues for osteodystrophy in chronic kidney disease","volume":"19","author":"Cunningham","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pediatr. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1973","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-1755.2005.00651.x","article-title":"Vitamin D and its analogues: Do they protect against cardiovascular disease in patients with kidney disease?","volume":"68","author":"Levin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, Z., Shi, H., Jia, J., Li, D., and Lin, S. (2013). Vitamin D supplementation and mortality risk in chronic kidney disease: A meta-analysis of 20 observational studies. BMC Nephrol., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2369-14-199"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semnephrol.2008.10.010","article-title":"Vitamin D Therapy for Chronic Kidney Disease","volume":"29","author":"Bhan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Semin. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1293","DOI":"10.1016\/S0195-5616(96)50130-0","article-title":"Benefits of Calcitriol Therapy and Serum Phosphorus Control in Dogs and Cats with Chronic Renal Failure","volume":"26","author":"Nagode","year":"1996","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Small Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1053\/j.semnephrol.2003.08.017","article-title":"Calcium-sensing receptors","volume":"24","author":"Goodman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Semin. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ph.32.030170.000425","article-title":"Endocrine Regulation of Calcium Metabolism","volume":"32","author":"Copp","year":"1970","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1111\/vec.12036","article-title":"Calcitriol, calcidiol, parathyroid hormone, and fibroblast growth factor-23 interactions in chronic kidney disease: Calcitriol, calcidiol, PTH, and FGF-23 in CKD","volume":"23","author":"Nagode","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Vet. Emerg. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S23","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.05910809","article-title":"Calcium Metabolism in Health and Disease","volume":"5","author":"Peacock","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2011.05.038","article-title":"Vitamin D and intestinal calcium absorption","volume":"347","author":"Christakos","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecl.2010.02.002","article-title":"Vitamin D: Metabolism","volume":"39","author":"Christakos","year":"2010","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1152\/physiol.00042.2014","article-title":"Calcium Sensing in the Renal Tubule","volume":"30","author":"Toka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Physiology"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F1337","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00273.2015","article-title":"Ways of calcium reabsorption in the kidney","volume":"310","author":"Moor","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Ren. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F121","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.1980.239.2.F121","article-title":"Effect of PTH on calcium transport across the cortical thick ascending limb of Henle\u2019s loop","volume":"239","author":"Bourdeau","year":"1980","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Ren. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F8","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00336.2004","article-title":"Vitamin D","volume":"289","author":"Dusso","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.-Ren. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1446","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.00240108","article-title":"RANKL Is a Mediator of Bone Resorption in Idiopathic Hypercalciuria","volume":"3","author":"Gomes","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1006\/gcen.1994.1154","article-title":"Dietary Vitamin D Dependence of Cat and Dog Due to Inadequate Cutaneous Synthesis of Vitamin D","volume":"96","author":"How","year":"1994","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/129.4.903","article-title":"Ineffective Vitamin D Synthesis in Cats Is Reversed by an Inhibitor of 7-Dehydrocholestrol-\u03947-Reductase1,2","volume":"129","author":"Morris","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"1031","article-title":"Cutaneous Vitamin D Synthesis in Carnivorous Species","volume":"2","author":"Corbee","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1111\/jpn.13259","article-title":"Vitamin D metabolism in dogs and cats and its relation to diseases not associated with bone metabolism","volume":"104","author":"Zafalon","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1079\/NRR200238","article-title":"Idiosyncratic nutrient requirements of cats appear to be diet-induced evolutionary adaptations","volume":"15","author":"Morris","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nutr. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-9861(84)90363-1","article-title":"The isolation and identification of vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 from Medicago sativa (alfalfa plant)","volume":"231","author":"Horst","year":"1984","journal-title":"Arch. Biochem. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"118","article-title":"Vitamin D: The \u201csunshine\u201d vitamin","volume":"3","author":"Nair","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"1","article-title":"Vitamin D in plants: A review of occurrence, analysis, and biosynthesis","volume":"4","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10807","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-29232-w","article-title":"Evidence of vitamin D synthesis in insects exposed to UVb light","volume":"8","author":"Oonincx","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1439-0396.2002.00379.x","article-title":"Cats discriminate between cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol","volume":"86","author":"Morris","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2007.12.001","article-title":"Vitamin D Status: Measurement, Interpretation, and Clinical Application","volume":"19","author":"Holick","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1177\/1098612X17693523","article-title":"Previously undescribed vitamin D C-3 epimer occurs in substantial amounts in the blood of cats","volume":"20","author":"Sprinkle","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Feline Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecl.2010.02.007","article-title":"The Vitamin D Receptor: New Paradigms for the Regulation of Gene Expression by 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3","volume":"39","author":"Pike","year":"2010","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15052","article-title":"Vitamin D Receptor Expression in Dogs","volume":"32","author":"Cartwright","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1007\/s00240-011-0438-y","article-title":"Association of vitamin D receptor gene polymorphism and calcium urolithiasis in the Chinese Han population","volume":"40","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Urol. Res."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.250.11.1259","article-title":"Vitamin D metabolism in canine and feline medicine","volume":"250","author":"Parker","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1038\/bonekey.2013.231","article-title":"Phosphate metabolism and vitamin D","volume":"3","author":"Fukumoto","year":"2014","journal-title":"BoneKEy Rep."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2009.196","article-title":"The FGF23\u2013Klotho axis: Endocrine regulation of phosphate homeostasis","volume":"5","author":"Razzaque","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2039","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-012-2175-z","article-title":"Phosphate homeostasis and its role in bone health","volume":"27","author":"Penido","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatr. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1038\/s41581-018-0078-3","article-title":"The Klotho proteins in health and disease","volume":"15","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2013.03.042","article-title":"Phosphate Homeostasis in CKD: Report of a Scientific Symposium Sponsored by the National Kidney Foundation","volume":"62","author":"Block","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3820","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI36479","article-title":"Endocrine functions of bone in mineral metabolism regulation","volume":"118","author":"Quarles","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1159\/000346792","article-title":"FGF23-Induced Hypophosphatemia Persists in Hyp Mice Deficient in the WNT Coreceptor Lrp6","volume":"Volume 180","author":"Razzaque","year":"2013","journal-title":"Contributions to Nephrology"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1106","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2014.215","article-title":"Parathyroid hormone activates the orphan nuclear receptor Nurr1 to induce FGF23 transcription","volume":"86","author":"Meir","year":"2014","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Covic, A., Goldsmith, D., and Ure\u00f1a Torres, P.A. (2020). Parathyroid Glands in Chronic Kidney Disease, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-43769-5"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.2009.466","article-title":"FGF23\u2013parathyroid interaction: Implications in chronic kidney disease","volume":"77","author":"Komaba","year":"2010","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martorelli, C., Kogika, M., Chacar, F., Caragelasco, D., de Campos Fonseca Pinto, A., Lorigados, C., and Andrade, L. (2017). Urinary Fractional Excretion of Phosphorus in Dogs with Spontaneous Chronic Kidney Disease. Vet. Sci., 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci4040067"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.14879","article-title":"The Influence of Chronic Kidney Disease on the Structural and Mechanical Properties of Canine Bone","volume":"32","author":"Shipov","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1007\/s11154-017-9421-4","article-title":"Secondary Hyperparthyroidism: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, Preventive and Therapeutic Strategies","volume":"18","author":"Portillo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2205","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2005010052","article-title":"Fibroblast Growth Factor-23 Mitigates Hyperphosphatemia but Accentuates Calcitriol Deficiency in Chronic Kidney Disease","volume":"16","author":"Gutierrez","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2144","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15319","article-title":"2018 ACVIM Forum Research Abstract Program: Seattle, Washington, June 14\u201315, 2018","volume":"32","author":"Kogika","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_110","first-page":"2280","article-title":"2018 ACVIM Forum Research Abstract Program: Seattle, Washington, June 14\u201315, 2018","volume":"32","author":"Chacar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vitam. D Metab. Chronic Kidney Dis. Cats Nephrolithiasis"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1111\/vec.12032","article-title":"The role of phosphorus in the pathophysiology of chronic kidney disease: Role of phosphorus in the pathophysiology of CKD","volume":"23","author":"Geddes","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Vet. Emerg. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.12044","article-title":"Fibroblast Growth Factor 23 in Feline Chronic Kidney Disease","volume":"27","author":"Geddes","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1965","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.03130314","article-title":"Decreased Conversion of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 to 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D 3 Following Cholecalciferol Therapy in Patients with CKD","volume":"9","author":"Stubbs","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI118061","article-title":"Inhibition of calcitriol receptor binding to vitamin D response elements by uremic toxins","volume":"96","author":"Patel","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjp.0706138","article-title":"Effects of serum from patients with chronic renal failure on rat hepatic cytochrome P450: Human uremic serum downregulates cytochrome P450","volume":"144","author":"Michaud","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1488","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2009080815","article-title":"Reduced Hepatic Synthesis of Calcidiol in Uremia","volume":"21","author":"Michaud","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvsm.2016.06.003","article-title":"Update on Mineral and Bone Disorders in Chronic Kidney Disease","volume":"46","author":"Foster","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Small Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvsm.2016.06.006","article-title":"Does Secondary Renal Osteopathy Exist in Companion Animals?","volume":"46","author":"Segev","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Small Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_119","first-page":"481","article-title":"Coupling the activities of bone formation and resorption: A multitude of signals within the basic multicellular unit","volume":"11","author":"Sims","year":"2014","journal-title":"BoneKEy Rep."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1740-8261.2001.tb00935.x","article-title":"Unusual Hyperparathyroidism in a Cat","volume":"42","author":"Gnudi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2004070573","article-title":"Activated Injectable Vitamin D and Hemodialysis Survival: A Historical Cohort Study","volume":"16","author":"Teng","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1620","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.10661013","article-title":"A Randomized Multicenter Trial of Paricalcitol versus Calcitriol for Secondary Hyperparathyroidism in Stages 3\u20134 CKD","volume":"9","author":"Coyne","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_123","first-page":"433","article-title":"Clinical Benefit of Calcitriol in Canine Chronic Kidney Disease","volume":"19","author":"Polzin","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_124","first-page":"1307","article-title":"Comparison of the effects of daily and intermittent-dose calcitriol on serum parathyroid hormone and ionized calcium concentrations in normal cats and cats with chronic renal failure","volume":"20","author":"Hostutler","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1038\/pr.2015.251","article-title":"Time-course analysis of 3-epi-25-hydroxyvitamin D3 shows markedly elevated levels in early life, particularly from vitamin D supplementation in preterm infants","volume":"79","author":"Ooms","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."}],"container-title":["Metabolites"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-1989\/10\/12\/499\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:41:42Z","timestamp":1760179302000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-1989\/10\/12\/499"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,4]]},"references-count":125,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12]]}},"alternative-id":["metabo10120499"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/metabo10120499","relation":{},"ISSN":["2218-1989"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2218-1989","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,4]]}}}