{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T10:48:03Z","timestamp":1790419683734,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":220,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,2]],"date-time":"2022-03-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1646179200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001711","name":"Swiss National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Grant No. 324730_138291 and 314730_153380"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Grant No. 324730_138291 and 314730_153380"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001711","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Metabolites"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nano- and microparticles are an implicit part of the human diet. They are unknowingly ingested with our food that contains them as additives or pollutants. However, their impact on human health is not yet understood and controversially discussed. The intestinal epithelial barrier shields our body against exogenous influences, such as commensal bacteria, pathogens, and body-foreign particles and, therefore, protects our body integrity. Breakdown of the intestinal epithelial barrier and aberrant immune responses are key events in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Epithelial lesions might enable systemic translocation of nano- and microparticles into the system, eventually triggering an excessive immune response. Thus, IBD patients could be particularly vulnerable to adverse health effects caused by the ingestion of synthetic particles with food. The food-additive titanium dioxide (TiO2) serves as a coloring agent in food products and is omnipresent in the Western diet. TiO2 nanoparticles exacerbate intestinal inflammation by activation of innate and adaptive immune response. Because of serious safety concerns, the use of TiO2 as a food additive was recently banned from food production within the European Union. Due to environmental pollution, plastic has entered the human food chain, and plastic microparticles have been evidenced in the drinking water and comestible goods. The impact of plastic ingestion and its resulting consequences on human health is currently the subject of intense research. Focusing on TiO2 and plastic particles in the human diet and their impact on epithelial integrity, gut homeostasis, and intestinal inflammation, this review is addressing contemporary hot topics which are currently attracting a lot of public attention.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo12030223","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,2]],"date-time":"2022-03-02T22:53:25Z","timestamp":1646261605000},"page":"223","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":48,"title":["The Intestinal Barrier\u2014Shielding the Body from Nano- and Microparticles in Our Diet"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Marlene","family":"Schwarzfischer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, University Hospital Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1733-9188","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gerhard","family":"Rogler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, University Hospital Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.143.2.391","article-title":"A single gene product, claudin-1 or -2, reconstitutes tight junction strands and recruits occludin in fibroblasts","volume":"143","author":"Furuse","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. 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