{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T17:26:32Z","timestamp":1789665992660,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,3]],"date-time":"2023-03-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1677801600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Metabolites"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Liver disease is one of the most common extraintestinal manifestations of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Often the course of liver disease is associated with an exacerbation of the underlying disease (Crohn\u2019s Disease\/Ulcerative Colitis). Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis encompasses a wide spectrum of liver damage. The most common form is nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) (75\u201380%), and the less common but more dangerous form is nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). NAFLD is now the most common cause of chronic liver disease in developed countries and the leading indication for liver transplantation in the United States. Genetic, demographic, clinical, and environmental factors can play a role in the pathogenesis of NAFLD. The increasing prevalence of NAFLD is associated with a widespread obesity epidemic, metabolic complications, including hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and dyslipidaemia. Some of the most common manifestations of IBD are liver, biliary tract, and gallbladder diseases. The liver fibrosis process has a complex pathophysiology and is often dependent on exogenous factors such as the treatment used and endogenous factors such as the gut microbiome. However, the factors that link IBD and liver fibrosis are not yet clear. The main purpose of the review is to try to find links between IBD and selected liver diseases and to identify knowledge gaps that will inform further research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo13030378","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,6]],"date-time":"2023-03-06T03:22:05Z","timestamp":1678072925000},"page":"378","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["What Do NAFLD, Liver Fibrosis, and Inflammatory Bowel Disease Have in Common? Review of the Current Literature"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6896-4744","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara","family":"Jarmakiewicz-Czaja","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Health Sciences, Medical College of Rzeszow University, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1390-9278","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jolanta","family":"Gruszecka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Health Sciences, Medical College of Rzeszow University, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Microbiology, Clinical Hospital No. 2, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5954-151X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafa\u0142","family":"Filip","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Medicine, Medical College of Rzeszow University, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology with IBD Unit, Clinical Hospital No. 2, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.13682","article-title":"Liver diseases: A major, neglected global public health problem requiring urgent actions and large-scale screening","volume":"38","author":"Marcellin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Liver Int."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mokdad, A.A., Lopez, A.D., Shahraz, S., Lozano, R., Mokdad, A.H., Stanaway, J., Murray, C.J., and Naghavi, M. (2014). Liver cirrhosis mortality in 187 countries between 1980 and 2010: A systematic analysis. BMC Med., 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-014-0145-y"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2016.07.020","article-title":"Direct and Indirect Economic Burden of Chronic Liver Disease in the United States","volume":"15","author":"Stepanova","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1154","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2018.07.008","article-title":"Changing Trends in Etiology-Based Annual Mortality From Chronic Liver Disease, From 2007 Through 2016","volume":"155","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2672","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.30251","article-title":"Global Perspectives on Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis","volume":"69","author":"Younossi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1038\/s42255-019-0076-1","article-title":"Transcriptional Network Analysis Implicates Altered Hepatic Immune Function in NASH development and resolution","volume":"1","author":"Haas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Metab."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1126\/science.349.6243.18","article-title":"The liver\u2019s weighty problem","volume":"349","author":"Leslie","year":"2015","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.23035","article-title":"Hepatic failure due to hepati-tis B reactivation in a patient with ulcerative colitis treated with prednisone","volume":"50","author":"Zeitz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.31311","article-title":"The Role of the Intestine in the Pathogenesis of Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis: Evidence and Therapeutic Implications","volume":"72","author":"Dean","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2017.109","article-title":"Global burden of NAFLD and NASH: Trends, predictions, risk factors and prevention","volume":"15","author":"Younossi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"(2022, December 21). National Health Survey: First Results, 2014\u20132015, Available online: http:\/\/www.abs.gov.au\/ausstats\/abs@.nsf\/mf\/4364.0.55.001."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1002\/osp4.13","article-title":"Obesity and the extent of liver damage among adult New Zealanders: Findings from a national survey","volume":"1","author":"Coppell","year":"2015","journal-title":"Obes. Sci. Pract."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cld.2015.10.005","article-title":"The prevalence and pathobiology of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in patients of different races or ethnicities","volume":"20","author":"Kalia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Liver Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2014.04.014","article-title":"Fibrosis progression in nonalcoholic fatty liver vs nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: A systematic review and meta-analysis of paired-biopsy studies","volume":"13","author":"Singh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Musso, G., Gambino, R., Tabibian, J.H., Ekstedt, M., Kechagias, S., Hamaguchi, M., Hultcrantz, R., Hagstr\u00f6m, H., Yoon, S.K., and Charatcharoenwitthaya, P. (2014). Association of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease with chronic kidney disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001680"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2016.01.012","article-title":"Epidemiology and natural history of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"65","author":"Fazel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Ralston, S.H., Strachan, M.W.J., Penman, I., and Hobson, R. (2020). Choroby Wewn\u0119trzne Davidson t. 2, Edra Urban & Partner."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Szczeklik, A., and Gajewski, P. (2020). Interna Szczeklika, Medycyna Praktyczna."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1080\/03007995.2019.1683817","article-title":"Hepatocellular carcinoma in non-alcohol fatty liver disease\u2014changing trends and specific challenges","volume":"36","author":"Piekarska","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Res. Opin."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1097\/TP.0000000000002480","article-title":"Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: Basic Pathogenetic Mechanisms in the Progression From NAFLD to NASH","volume":"103","author":"Pierantonelli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transplantation"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1175","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.2298","article-title":"Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis: A Review","volume":"323","author":"Sheka","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2212","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)32511-3","article-title":"Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"397","author":"Powell","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2017.38","article-title":"Mechanisms of activation of liver stellate cells","volume":"14","author":"Tsuchida","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113869","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2021.113869","article-title":"Pathophysiological communication between hepatocytes and nonparenchymal cells in liver injury from NAFLD to liver fibrosis","volume":"176","author":"Kumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2017.11.012","article-title":"Determinants of the progression and regression of fibrosis in NASH","volume":"68","author":"Schuppan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"27","article-title":"Nieswoiste choroby zapalne jelit u os\u00f3b w podesz\u0142ym wieku","volume":"8","author":"Radwan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Klin."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1097\/MPG.0b013e3182a025ee","article-title":"Diagnosis and treatment of perianal Crohn disease: NASPGHAN clinical report and consensus statement","volume":"57","author":"Pasternak","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"118","article-title":"A Distinct Gut Microbiota Exists Within Crohn\u2019s Disease\u2013Related Perianal Fistulae","volume":"242","author":"Haac","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gastrointestinal"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5085(98)70381-6","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease: Etiology and pathogenesis","volume":"115","author":"Fiocchi","year":"1998","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"107","article-title":"Ro\u015bnie liczba os\u00f3b z rozpoznaniem mikroskopowego zapalenia jelit\u2014Co nowego w leczeniu?","volume":"8","author":"Chreptowicz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Klin."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.4292\/wjgpt.v7.i1.41","article-title":"Emerging role of novel biomarkers in the diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"7","author":"Soubieres","year":"2016","journal-title":"World J. Gastrointest. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8813558","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/8813558","article-title":"The Function and Role of the Th17 (T helper 17)\/Treg (T regulatory) Cell Balance in Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"2020","author":"Yan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00082","article-title":"The Differential Roles of T Cells in Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Obesity","volume":"10","author":"Weyler","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2775","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.02775","article-title":"Intestinal Homeostasis and Disease: A Complex Partnership Between Immune Cells, Non-Immune Cells, and the Microbiome","volume":"10","author":"MacDonald","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.13360","article-title":"Intestinal epithelial claudins: Expression and regulation in homeostasis and inflammation","volume":"1397","author":"Quiros","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aninu.2015.08.014","article-title":"Autophagy and tight junction proteins in the intestine and intestinal diseases","volume":"1","author":"Hu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1999","DOI":"10.1002\/ibd.22835","article-title":"Differential expression of occludin in patients with ulcerative colitis and healthy controls","volume":"18","author":"Mendivil","year":"2012","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1091\/mbc.e16-10-0698","article-title":"Visualizing the dynamic coupling of claudin strands to the actin cytoskeleton through ZO-1","volume":"28","author":"Tietgens","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1002\/JLB.5MR0120-230R","article-title":"Tight junctions in the development of asthma, chronic rhinosinusitis, atopic dermatitis, eosinophilic esophagitis, and inflammatory bowel diseases","volume":"107","author":"Sugita","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"920","DOI":"10.1093\/ecco-jcc\/jjaa022","article-title":"Intestinal epithelial cells express immunomodulatory ISG15 during active ulcerative colitis and Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"14","author":"Svendsen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Crohns Colitis"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"17","article-title":"Markers of dysbiosis in patients with ulcerative colitis and Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"91","author":"Danilova","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ter. Arkh."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2019.11.003","article-title":"The microbiome and inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"145","author":"Glassner","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2247","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.02247","article-title":"The Gut Microbiota in the Pathogenesis and Therapeutics of Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"9","author":"Zuo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1111\/1751-2980.12570","article-title":"Specific changes of enteric mycobiota and virome in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"19","author":"Chu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Dig. Dis."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"1","article-title":"Wytyczne post\u0119powania z chorymi na nieswoiste choroby zapalne jelit w praktyce lekarza rodzinnego","volume":"3","author":"Gonciarz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lekarz POZ"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.12740\/PP\/62382","article-title":"Psychiatric illnesses in inflammatory bowel diseases\u2014psychiatric comorbidity and biological underpinnings","volume":"50","author":"Nowakowski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Pol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2011.3","article-title":"The role of bacteria and pattern-recognition receptors in Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"8","author":"Man","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"215","article-title":"Wytyczne post\u0119powania w nieswoistych chorobach zapalnych jelit","volume":"2","author":"Bartnik","year":"2007","journal-title":"Przegl\u0105d Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"371","article-title":"Przydatno\u015b\u0107 biomarker\u00f3w w ocenie aktywno\u015bci nieswoistych chor\u00f3b zapalnych jelit -wskaz\u00f3wki praktyczne","volume":"2","author":"Eder","year":"2018","journal-title":"Varia Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2016.08.015","article-title":"Level of Fecal Calprotectin Correlates With Severity of Small Bowel Crohn\u2019s Disease, Measured by Balloon-assisted Enteroscopy and Computed Tomography Enterography","volume":"15","author":"Arai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"33","article-title":"Does fecal calprotectin predict short-term relapse after stopping TNF\u03b1-blocking agents in inflammatory bowel disease patients in deep remission?","volume":"9","author":"Molander","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Crohn\u2019s. Colitis"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.2174\/1389203719666180514150921","article-title":"Lactoferrin: Major Physiological Functions and Applications","volume":"20","author":"Hao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Protein Pept. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1626","DOI":"10.1080\/10942912.2019.1666137","article-title":"Lactoferrin (LF): A natural antimicrobial protein","volume":"22","author":"Niaz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Prop."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.3892\/ijo.2021.5265","article-title":"Lactoferrin may inhibit the development of cancer via its immunostimulatory and immunomodulatory activities (Review)","volume":"59","author":"Pan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"CD012540","article-title":"Withdrawal of immunosuppressant or biologic therapy for patients with quiescent Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"5","author":"Boyapati","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.21037\/tgh-20-266","article-title":"Primary sclerosing cholangitis","volume":"6","author":"Rabiee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transl. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1159\/000358150","article-title":"Primary sclerosing cholangitis","volume":"32","author":"Williamson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Dig. Dis."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1097\/MOG.0000000000000336","article-title":"Immunogenetics in primary sclerosing cholangitis","volume":"33","author":"Chung","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2011.11.010","article-title":"Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis and Disease Distribution in Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"10","author":"Alakkari","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2017.07.022","article-title":"Primary sclerosing cholangitis\u2014A comprehensive review","volume":"67","author":"Karlsen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cld.2015.08.012","article-title":"The Gut-Liver Axis in Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis","volume":"20","author":"Eksteen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Liver Dis."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1080\/00365521.2020.1787501","article-title":"Open-label prospective therapeutic clinical trials: Oral vancomycin in children and adults with primary sclerosing cholangitis","volume":"55","author":"Ali","year":"2020","journal-title":"Scand. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4548","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v23.i25.4548","article-title":"Distinct gut microbiota profiles in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis and ulcerative colitis","volume":"23","author":"Bajer","year":"2017","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5519","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-021-06567-8","article-title":"Characterization of the gut microbiota in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis compared to inflammatory bowel disease and healthy controls","volume":"48","author":"Ostadmohammadi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2418","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.15007","article-title":"Global incidence, prevalence and features of primary sclerosing cholangitis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"41","author":"Mehta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Liver Int."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.3745","article-title":"Genome-wide association study of primary sclerosing cholangitis identifies new risk loci and quantifies the genetic relationship with inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"49","author":"Ji","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Genet"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1956","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v21.i6.1956","article-title":"Distinctive inflammatory bowel disease phenotype in primary sclerosing cholangitis","volume":"21","author":"Janse","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.13548","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease with primary sclerosing cholangitis: A Danish population-based cohort study 1977\u20132011","volume":"38","author":"Nielsen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Liver Int."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1007\/s11894-018-0620-2","article-title":"The IBD and PSC Phenotypes of PSC-IBD","volume":"20","author":"Ricciuto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Gastroenterol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.5009\/gnl16510","article-title":"Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis: A Review of the Phenotype and Associated Specific Features","volume":"12","author":"Palmela","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gut Liver"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2004.046615","article-title":"PSC-IBD: A unique form of inflammatory bowel disease associated with primary sclerosing cholangitis","volume":"54","author":"Loftus","year":"2005","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.14393","article-title":"Colectomy prior to diagnosis of primary sclerosing cholangitis is associated with improved prognosis in a nationwide cohort study of 2594 PSC-IBD patients","volume":"47","author":"Nordenvall","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2019.05.006","article-title":"Return to sender: Lymphocyte trafficking mechanisms as contributors to primary sclerosing cholangitis","volume":"71","author":"Wildenberg","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1587","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)60096-3","article-title":"Primary sclerosing cholangitis","volume":"382","author":"Hirschfield","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1424","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.30782","article-title":"participants of the AASLD\/EASL Workshop. Report on the AASLD\/EASL Joint Workshop on Clinical Trial Endpoints in NAFLD","volume":"70","author":"Rinella","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1080\/17474124.2019.1574569","article-title":"Extraintestinal manifestations in inflammatory bowel disease\u2014Epidemiology, genetics, and pathogenesis","volume":"13","author":"Greuter","year":"2019","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2021.07.042","article-title":"Extraintestinal Manifestations of Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Current Concepts, Treatment, and Implications for Disease Management","volume":"161","author":"Rogler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3186","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-020-06588-6","article-title":"Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Is Common in IBD Patients However Progression to Hepatic Fibrosis by Noninvasive Markers Is Rare","volume":"66","author":"Ritaccio","year":"2021","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.3109\/00365521.2011.647412","article-title":"Evaluation of liver fibrosis by transient elastography (Fibroscan\u00ae) in patients with inflammatory bowel disease treated with methotrexate: A multicentric trial","volume":"47","author":"Taxonera","year":"2012","journal-title":"Scand. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1621","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2036.2006.02929.x","article-title":"Diagnosis of liver fibrosis by transient elastography (FibroScan) and non-invasive methods in Crohn\u2019s disease patients treated with methotrexate","volume":"23","author":"Laharie","year":"2006","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"774824","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.774824","article-title":"Patients With IBD Receiving Methotrexate Are at Higher Risk of Liver Injury Compared With Patients With Non-IBD Diseases: A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Med."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5676","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v25.i37.5676","article-title":"Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: Beyond the natural history","volume":"25","author":"Paduano","year":"2019","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1354","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-017-4495-0","article-title":"Intestinal Inflammation Does Not Predict Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Severity in Inflammatory Bowel Disease Patients","volume":"62","author":"Carr","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"406","article-title":"Increased risk of MAFLD and Liver Fibrosis in Inflammatory Bowel Disease Independent of Classic Metabolic Risk Factors","volume":"21","author":"Calleja","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Veltkamp, C., Lan, S., Korompoki, E., Weiss, K., Schmidt, H., and Seitz, H. (2022). Hepatic Steatosis and Fibrosis in Chronic Inflammatory Bowel Disease. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11092623"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1159\/000445135","article-title":"Intestinal Fibrosis and Liver Fibrosis: Consequences of Chronic Inflammation or Independent Pathophysiology?","volume":"1","author":"Rieder","year":"2016","journal-title":"Inflamm. Intest. Dis."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2005.088690","article-title":"Emerging insights into Transforming growth factor beta Smad signal in hepatic fibrogenesis","volume":"56","author":"Inagaki","year":"2007","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G677","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00104.2011","article-title":"Themes in fibrosis and gastrointestinal inflammation","volume":"300","author":"Fiocchi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1089\/wound.2019.1032","article-title":"The Role of the Anti-Inflammatory Cytokine Interleukin-10 in Tissue Fibrosis","volume":"9","author":"Steen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Wound Care"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmm.2021.151500","article-title":"Microbiota profiling in aging-associated inflammation and liver degeneration","volume":"311","author":"Baumann","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19355","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.8466","article-title":"Distinctly altered gut microbiota in the progression of liver disease","volume":"7","author":"Xie","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715506","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2021.715506","article-title":"Metabolic Influences of Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis on Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"12","author":"Sultan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2035","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2016-312729","article-title":"Gut microbiome and liver diseases","volume":"65","author":"Tilg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2050","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.30975","article-title":"Probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG Prevents Liver Fibrosis Through Inhibiting Hepatic Bile Acid Synthesis and Enhancing Bile Acid Excretion in Mice","volume":"71","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551449","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.551449","article-title":"Inhibitory Effects of the Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG Effector Protein HM0539 on Inflammatory Response through the TLR4\/MyD88\/NF-\u043aB Axis","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crohns.2014.04.005","article-title":"European Crohn\u2019s and Colitis Organisation; European Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition. Consensus guidelines of ECCO\/ESPGHAN on the medical management of pediatric Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"8","author":"Ruemmele","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Crohns Colitis"},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"98","article-title":"Doustne preparaty kwasu 5-aminosalicylowego w leczeniu wrzodziej\u0105cego zapalenia jelita grubego","volume":"4","author":"Rawa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Klin."},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"46","article-title":"Steroidooporno\u015b\u0107 i steroidozale\u017cno\u015b\u0107 w nieswoistych chorobach zapal-nych jelit","volume":"7","author":"Radwan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Klin."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1097\/MIB.0000000000000197","article-title":"Update 2014: Advances to optimize 6-mercaptopurine and azathioprine to reduce toxicity and improve efficacy in the management of IBD","volume":"21","author":"Amin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crohns.2013.03.011","article-title":"Governing Board and Operational Board of ECCO. ECCO position statement: The use of biosimilar medicines in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)","volume":"7","author":"Danese","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Crohns Colitis"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108698","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2022.108698","article-title":"Immunotherapy of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) through mesenchymal stem cells","volume":"107","author":"Huldani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-020-01895-1","article-title":"Mesenchymal stem cell-based cell-free strategies: Safe and effective treatments for liver injury","volume":"11","author":"Hu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108004","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2021.108004","article-title":"Stem cell therapy in liver regeneration: Focus on mesenchymal stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells","volume":"232","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Association for the Study of the Liver (2019). EASL Clinical Practice Guidelines on nutrition in chronic liver disease. J. Hepatol., 70, 172\u2013193.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2018.06.024"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2019.11.054","article-title":"Diet in Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases","volume":"19","author":"Sasson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."}],"container-title":["Metabolites"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-1989\/13\/3\/378\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:47:03Z","timestamp":1760122023000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-1989\/13\/3\/378"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,3]]},"references-count":105,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}},"alternative-id":["metabo13030378"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/metabo13030378","relation":{},"ISSN":["2218-1989"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2218-1989","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,3]]}}}