{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:55:57Z","timestamp":1787028957020,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,7]],"date-time":"2024-10-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1728259200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of Creation of Functional Staple Foods and Nutritional Intervention for Chronic Diseases"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Metabolites"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Objectives: This study investigated the efficacy of wheat peptide supplementation compared to regular proteins in elite cross-country skiers, providing insights into the metabolic and performance effects of these supplements in order to guide athletes in selecting optimal energy sources for training and competition. Methods: Nineteen healthy male cross-country skiers were enrolled and assigned to either the peptide group (PEP, n = 9) or the protein group (PRO, n = 10). A four-week intervention study involving supplementation with wheat peptides\/regular proteins was conducted, and pre- and post-intervention assessments were performed to evaluate exercise capacity and metabolic profiles. Results: The study found that the PEP group and the PRO group showed distinct within-group effects on exercise performance. The PEP group demonstrated improved aerobic capacity, including better performance in 10 km roller skating, an increased lactate threshold, and reduced resting blood lactate levels. The PRO group enhanced anaerobic capacity, such as improved sprint time, hexagon test performance, and lactate clearance. Metabolomic analysis revealed specific metabolic pathways affected in each group, with the PEP group showing impacts on the \u03b1-linolenic acid pathway and the PRO group on ketone body synthesis and degradation as well as vitamin B6 metabolism. Conclusions: Our findings indicate that wheat oligopeptides and regular proteins have comparable effects on exercise performance. However, the wheat peptides may offer greater advantages in enhancing aerobic capacity. No significant variations were observed in blood metabolite profiles between the two groups, but distinct metabolic pathways exhibited different responses.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo14100538","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,8]],"date-time":"2024-10-08T04:29:26Z","timestamp":1728361766000},"page":"538","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Wheat Peptides as Catalysts for Athletic Performance Improvement in Cross-Country Skiers: A Randomized Controlled Trial"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-4916-8429","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mai","family":"Xiang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Sports Nutrition Center, National Institute of Sports Medicine, Beijing 100029, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Sports Nutrition, General Administration of Sport, Beijing 100029, China"},{"name":"College of Exercise Science, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1107-3286","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qi","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sports Nutrition Center, National Institute of Sports Medicine, Beijing 100029, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Sports Nutrition, General Administration of Sport, Beijing 100029, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yue","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sports Nutrition Center, National Institute of Sports Medicine, Beijing 100029, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Sports Nutrition, General Administration of Sport, Beijing 100029, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shenglin","family":"Duan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of the Innovative Development of Functional Staple and the Nutritional Intervention for Chronic Disease, Beijing 100015, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaofeng","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China National Research Institute of Food & Fermentation Industries, Beijing 100015, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2368-7311","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xuemei","family":"Sui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Exercise Science, Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chaoxue","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Exercise & Health Science, Xi\u2019an Physical Education University, Xi\u2019an 710068, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9388-2916","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qirong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sports Nutrition Center, National Institute of Sports Medicine, Beijing 100029, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Sports Nutrition, General Administration of Sport, Beijing 100029, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1111\/sms.12601","article-title":"The elite cross-country skier provides unique insights into human exercise physiology","volume":"25","author":"Holmberg","year":"2015","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.2016-0749","article-title":"Physiological Capacity and Training Routines of Elite Cross-Country Skiers: Approaching the Upper Limits of Human Endurance","volume":"12","author":"Sandbakk","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-016-0573-2","article-title":"Factors that Influence the Performance of Elite Sprint Cross-Country Skiers","volume":"47","author":"Zinner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1675","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-019-04158-x","article-title":"Energy system contribution during competitive cross-country skiing","volume":"119","author":"Losnegard","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-010-1372-3","article-title":"Metabolic rate and gross efficiency at high work rates in world class and national level sprint skiers","volume":"109","author":"Sandbakk","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Rusko, H. (2008). The Handbooks of Sports Medicine and Science: Cross Country Skiing, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1007\/s42978-020-00105-x","article-title":"Energetic demands and nutritional strategies of elite cross-country skiers during tour de ski: A narrative review","volume":"3","author":"Heikura","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Sci. Sport Exerc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/17461390400074102","article-title":"Protein Requirements for Endurance Athletes","volume":"4","author":"Tarnopolsky","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1249\/JSR.0000000000000180","article-title":"Nutrition to Support Recovery from Endurance Exercise: Optimal Carbohydrate and Protein Replacement","volume":"14","author":"Moore","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Sports Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1139\/apnm-2013-0591","article-title":"Beyond muscle hypertrophy: Why dietary protein is important for endurance athletes","volume":"39","author":"Moore","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2020.12.012","article-title":"Protein supplementation increases adaptations to endurance training: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"40","author":"Lin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5085(76)80117-5","article-title":"Peptide Absorption","volume":"71","author":"Matthews","year":"1976","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1042\/cs0430907","article-title":"Evidence for active transport of the dipeptide glycylsarcosine by hamster jejunum in vitro","volume":"43","author":"Addison","year":"1972","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1975.sp011189","article-title":"Absorption of amino acids and peptides from a complex mixture in the isolated small intestine of the rat","volume":"253","author":"Gardner","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2007-0629","article-title":"Mammary uptake, portal-drained visceral flux, and hepatic metabolism of free and peptide-bound amino acids in cows fed steam-flaked or dry-rolled sorghum grain diets","volume":"91","author":"Tagari","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2016.08.114","article-title":"The collagen derived dipeptide hydroxyprolyl-glycine promotes C2C12 myoblast differentiation and myotube hypertrophy","volume":"478","author":"Kitakaze","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1237","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114515002810","article-title":"Collagen peptide supplementation in combination with resistance training improves body composition and increases muscle strength in elderly sarcopenic men: A randomised controlled trial","volume":"114","author":"Zdzieblik","year":"2015","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1007\/s00726-019-02706-5","article-title":"The effects of collagen peptides on muscle damage, inflammation and bone turnover following exercise: A randomized, controlled trial","volume":"51","author":"Clifford","year":"2019","journal-title":"Amino Acids"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.2014-0083","article-title":"Effect of Whey Protein Hydrolysate on Performance and Recovery of Top-Class Orienteering Runners","volume":"25","author":"Hansen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jendricke, P., Kohl, J., Centner, C., Gollhofer, A., and K\u00f6nig, D. (2020). Influence of Specific Collagen Peptides and Concurrent Training on Cardiometabolic Parameters and Performance Indices in Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Front. Nutr., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2020.580918"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0034-1398647","article-title":"Whey or Casein Hydrolysate with Carbohydrate for Metabolism and Performance in Cycling","volume":"36","author":"Oosthuyse","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idairyj.2013.07.001","article-title":"Hydrolysed whey protein reduces muscle damage markers in Brazilian elite soccer players compared with whey protein and maltodextrin. A twelve-week in-championship intervention","volume":"34","author":"Lollo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Dairy J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1641","DOI":"10.1039\/D1FO03320D","article-title":"The anti-fatigue effect of the Auxis thazard oligopeptide via modulation of the AMPK\/PGC-1\u03b1 pathway in mice","volume":"13","author":"Qu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"1066","article-title":"Compressed food with added functional oligopeptides improves performance during military endurance training","volume":"26","author":"Zheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1186\/s12986-021-00574-z","article-title":"The role of protein hydrolysates for exercise-induced skeletal muscle recovery and adaptation: A current perspective","volume":"18","author":"Morgan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cohen, J. (2013). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203771587"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"92","article-title":"Multivariate analysis in metabolomics","volume":"1","author":"Worley","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Metabolomics"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.2174\/2213235X04666160613122429","article-title":"PCA as a practical indicator of OPLS-DA model reliability","volume":"4","author":"Worley","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Metabolomics"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y., Li, E.-M., and Xu, L.-Y. (2022). Guide to Metabolomics Analysis: A Bioinformatics Workflow. Metabolites, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo12040357"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/s11306-011-0330-3","article-title":"Double-check: Validation of diagnostic statistics for PLS-DA models in metabolomics studies","volume":"8","author":"Saccenti","year":"2012","journal-title":"Metabolomics"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4561","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.01961","article-title":"Lactate\u2013a signal coordinating cell and systemic function","volume":"208","author":"Philp","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, W.-H., Park, H., Grau, M., and Heine, O. (2020). Decreased Blood Glucose and Lactate: Is a Useful Indicator of Recovery Ability in Athletes?. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17155470"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e177","DOI":"10.2337\/dc13-0965","article-title":"Blood glucose responses to type, intensity, duration, and timing of exercise","volume":"36","author":"Colberg","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1123\/ijspp.6.1.8","article-title":"Blood lactate diagnostics in exercise testing and training","volume":"6","author":"Beneke","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cintineo, H.P., Arent, M.A., Antonio, J., and Arent, S.M. (2018). Effects of protein supplementation on performance and recovery in resistance and endurance training. Front. Nutr., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2018.00083"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kloby Nielsen, L.L., Tandrup Lambert, M.N., and Jeppesen, P.B. (2020). The effect of ingesting carbohydrate and proteins on athletic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12051483"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.M400225-JLR200","article-title":"Long-chain conversion of [13C]linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid in response to marked changes in their dietary intake in men","volume":"46","author":"Hussein","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1186\/s40169-017-0153-6","article-title":"Significance of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human health","volume":"6","author":"Tejera","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2006.05.013","article-title":"Metabolism of \u03b1-linolenic acid in humans","volume":"75","author":"Burdge","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plefa.2003.11.001","article-title":"Pathways and control of ketone body metabolism: On the fringe of lipid biochemistry","volume":"70","author":"Fukao","year":"2004","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/2046-7648-3-17","article-title":"Acute nutritional ketosis: Implications for exercise performance and metabolism","volume":"3","author":"Cox","year":"2014","journal-title":"Extrem. Physiol. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1249\/JSR.0000000000000542","article-title":"Effects of ketone bodies on endurance exercise","volume":"17","author":"Sansone","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Sports Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13687","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0506228102","article-title":"Vitamin B6 biosynthesis in higher plants","volume":"102","author":"Titiz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1088","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbagen.2019.03.019","article-title":"Discovery of pyridoxal reductase activity as part of human vitamin B6 metabolism","volume":"1863","author":"Ramos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biochim. Et Biophys. Acta (BBA)-Gen. Subj."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10756","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.272.16.10756","article-title":"Human pyridoxal kinase: cDNA cloning, expression, and modulation by ligands of the benzodiazepine receptor","volume":"272","author":"Hanna","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parra, M., Stahl, S., and Hellmann, H. (2018). Vitamin B\u2086 and Its Role in Cell Metabolism and Physiology. Cells, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells7070084"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Combs, G.F., and McClung, J.P. (2016). The Vitamins: Fundamental Aspects in Nutrition and Health, Academic Press."}],"container-title":["Metabolites"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-1989\/14\/10\/538\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:12:17Z","timestamp":1760112737000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2218-1989\/14\/10\/538"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,7]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]}},"alternative-id":["metabo14100538"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/metabo14100538","relation":{},"ISSN":["2218-1989"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2218-1989","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,7]]}}}