{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T11:20:11Z","timestamp":1792840811660,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":356,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,17]],"date-time":"2025-11-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763337600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Structure of the Medical University \u201cProf. Dr. Paraskev Stoyanov\u201d\u2014Varna","award":["P-100-415"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P-100-415"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Metabolites"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Objectives: The therapeutic use of controlled substances, particularly opioids, stimulants, and benzodiazepines, has significantly increased in recent decades. This is often accompanied by non-medical use and diversion, posing challenges for healthcare professionals and forensic experts monitoring potential misuse. As a result, the blurred boundary between legitimate therapy and substance abuse complicates the interpretation of toxicological results in clinical, legal, and occupational contexts. Methods: This review summarizes recent strategies for distinguishing therapeutic from illicit drug use through the analysis of substances and their metabolites in biological samples using sensitive and specific analytical methods. Results: Traditional drug abuse testing methods, based on parent substance detection, often lack the specificity needed to differentiate therapeutic use from illicit intake. Therefore, advanced analytical methods are required to accurately differentiate the source, route, and adherence to therapy. Therapeutic and illicit forms of the same substance can exhibit distinct metabolic profiles, with certain metabolites serving as biomarkers for illicit drug use. In some cases, chiral analysis may also aid in determining the drug source. Other studies have shown that the ratio of the parent compound to its metabolites (or between different metabolites) may reflect the pattern of use, such as chronic versus acute use or the route of administration. Illicit drugs may also contain synthesis by-products or cutting agents, detectable through advanced techniques. Conclusions: Metabolite profiling offers a robust approach for differentiating therapeutic from illicit drug use and is expected to be increasingly applied in clinical toxicology, forensic investigations, workplace testing, and\/or doping control.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo15110745","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]],"date-time":"2025-11-19T11:17:27Z","timestamp":1763551047000},"page":"745","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Differentiation of Therapeutic and Illicit Drug Use via Metabolite Profiling"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0528-0289","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stanila","family":"Stoeva-Grigorova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Varna, 9000 Varna, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nadezhda","family":"Hvarchanova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Varna, 9000 Varna, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5101-7716","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silvia","family":"Gancheva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Varna, 9002 Varna, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-4725-8673","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miroslav","family":"Eftimov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Varna, 9002 Varna, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kaloyan D.","family":"Georgiev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Varna, 9000 Varna, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5778-4043","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maya","family":"Radeva-Ilieva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Varna, 9000 Varna, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"j760","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.j760","article-title":"Association between concurrent use of prescription opioids and benzodiazepines and overdose: Retrospective analysis","volume":"356","author":"Sun","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2024). 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