{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T00:05:16Z","timestamp":1787097916503,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,3]],"date-time":"2025-12-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764720000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Metabolites"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Natural products containing hydroxyanthracene derivatives (HADs) such as Cascara (Rhamnus purshiana), Frangula (Rhamnus frangula), Rhubarb (Rheum palmatum), and Senna (Cassia angustifolia) have long been used for their laxative properties, but also raise safety concerns due to reported genotoxic and carcinogenic potential. Most studies have focused on quantifying HADs, whereas the broader secondary metabolite landscape of these herbal drugs remains underexplored. We aimed to generate an untargeted metabolomic fingerprint of these four species and to explore their chemical diversity using AI-based structural classification. Methods: Four commercial botanical raw materials were extracted with 60% methanol and analysed by UPLC\u2013HRMS\/MS in positive and negative ion modes. Features were processed in Compound Discoverer and annotated by accurate mass and MS\/MS matching against spectral databases, then assigned to structural classes using a graph neural network classifier. Multivariate analyses (PCA, HCA) were used to compare metabolic patterns across species. Results: In total, 93, 83, 83 and 51 metabolites were annotated in cascara, frangula, rhubarb, and senna, respectively, spanning flavonoids, anthraquinones, phenylpropanoids and other classes. Only four flavonoids were shared by all species, indicating marked biochemical divergence. Several putatively species-enriched features were observed, including pavine in cascara and frangula, vicenin-2 in senna, and piceatannol in rhubarb. Senna displayed the most distinct metabolic profile, whereas cascara and frangula clustered closely. Conclusions: This work provides a chemistry-centred metabolomic fingerprint of four HAD-containing herbal drugs using graph-based neural networks for natural product classification, supporting future studies on the pharmacological potential, bioavailability and safety of their metabolites.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo15120779","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,5]],"date-time":"2025-12-05T18:42:02Z","timestamp":1764960122000},"page":"779","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Untargeted Metabolomics for Profiling of Cascara, Senna, Rhubarb, and Frangula Metabolites"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-2972-0028","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paola","family":"Nezi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione Toscana Life Sciences, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-3605-0700","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessia Lucia","family":"Prete","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione Toscana Life Sciences, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Information Engineering and Mathematics, University of Siena, Via Roma, 56, 53100 Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1668-9557","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Filippo","family":"Costanti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering and Mathematics, University of Siena, Via Roma, 56, 53100 Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8329-1565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vittoria","family":"Cicaloni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione Toscana Life Sciences, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mattia","family":"Cicogni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione Toscana Life Sciences, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0607-6212","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura","family":"Tinti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione Toscana Life Sciences, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2923-8157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura","family":"Salvini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione Toscana Life Sciences, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8206-8142","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Monica","family":"Bianchini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Engineering and Mathematics, University of Siena, Via Roma, 56, 53100 Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jnatprod.5b01055","article-title":"Natural products as sources of new drugs from 1981 to 2014","volume":"79","author":"Newman","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. 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