{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,23]],"date-time":"2026-04-23T09:47:14Z","timestamp":1776937634489,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,11]],"date-time":"2026-04-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775865600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"first batch of national sports science base projects","award":["GJTK024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GJTK024"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Metabolites"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Circadian disruption exacerbates type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Time-restricted feeding (TRF) and exercise (EX) improve metabolic health, but their combinatory effect remains unclear. This study investigated whether combined TRF and EX additively ameliorates metabolism via circadian reprogramming in db\/db mice. Methods: Eight-week-old male db\/db mice were assigned to control (Con), diabetic model (DM), TRF (8 h feeding window), EX (treadmill, 60 min\/day, 5 days\/week), or combined TRF + EX groups for 8 weeks (n = 8\/group). Body weight, glucose\/insulin tolerance, and 24 h energy metabolism (CLAMS) were assessed. Mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, inflammation, and expression of mitophagy (Pink1, Park2, Bnip3, Fundc1) and thermogenic (Ucp1, Pgc1a, Prdm16, Cidea) genes were measured. Results: Compared with the con group, DM mice showed obesity, hyperglycemia and blunted circadian metabolic rhythm. The TRF and EX groups improved these defects. Specifically, combined TRF + EX reduced fasting blood glucose from 25.3 \u00b1 3.1 mmol\/L (DM) to 13.2 \u00b1 1.8 mmol\/L (p &lt; 0.05), body weight from 49.8 \u00b1 2.5 g to 39.5 \u00b1 1.7 g (p &lt; 0.05), and body fat percentage from 45.6 \u00b1 3.2% to 32.1 \u00b1 2.2% (p &lt; 0.05). GTT area under the curve (AUC) decreased from 3711.0 \u00b1 186.5 (DM) to 2118.0 \u00b1 112.4 (p &lt; 0.05), and ITT AUC decreased from 2617.5 \u00b1 135.8 to 1260.0 \u00b1 68.9 (p &lt; 0.05). Notably, the combination of TRF + EX produced greater effects than either intervention alone: body weight, fasting blood glucose, and glucose\/insulin tolerance were greatly improved (p &lt; 0.05). In addition, compared with the DM group, the diurnal metabolic amplitude and phase were improved in the TRF or EX group; the combination group showed further improvements in these parameters. Furthermore, TRF and EX each resulted in significantly higher expression of key thermogenic genes (Ucp1, Pgc1a, Prdm16, Cidea) in white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT) (p &lt; 0.05), and the TRF + EX group showed the highest expression levels. Combined intervention also restored skeletal muscle SOD activity (31.2 \u00b1 2.9 U\/mg prot vs. DM 20.1 \u00b1 2.5 U\/mg prot, p &lt; 0.05) and reduced serum TNF-\u03b1 (28.5 \u00b1 4.5 pg\/mL vs. DM 65.8 \u00b1 8.5 pg\/mL, p &lt; 0.05) and IL-6 (21.6 \u00b1 3.8 pg\/mL vs. DM 50.3 \u00b1 7.1 pg\/mL, p &lt; 0.05). Conclusions: TRF + EX additively restores metabolic homeostasis in diabetes by re-entraining circadian energy rhythms, improving mitochondrial quality, and activating adipose thermogenesis, supporting further investigation of integrated lifestyle timing as a potential therapeutic strategy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo16040257","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T08:49:02Z","timestamp":1776070142000},"page":"257","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Circadian Reprogramming by Combined Time-Restricted Feeding and Exercise Improves Metabolic Homeostasis in Diabetes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Qingxin","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physical Education and Health, Yibin University, Yibin 644000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Guodong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sugao","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Life Sciences, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yanli","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruze, R., Liu, T., Zou, X., Song, J., Chen, Y., Xu, R., Yin, X., and Xu, Q. 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