{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T06:51:10Z","timestamp":1781592670314,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":155,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,21]],"date-time":"2021-12-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1640044800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R21 AI152832"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R21 AI152832"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R03 AI165170"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R03 AI165170"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Micromachines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The kidneys are often involved in adverse effects and toxicity caused by exposure to foreign compounds, chemicals, and drugs. Early predictions of these influences are essential to facilitate new, safe drugs to enter the market. However, in current drug treatments, drug-induced nephrotoxicity accounts for 1\/4 of reported serious adverse reactions, and 1\/3 of them are attributable to antibiotics. Drug-induced nephrotoxicity is driven by multiple mechanisms, including altered glomerular hemodynamics, renal tubular cytotoxicity, inflammation, crystal nephropathy, and thrombotic microangiopathy. Although the functional proteins expressed by renal tubules that mediate drug sensitivity are well known, current in vitro 2D cell models do not faithfully replicate the morphology and intact renal tubule function, and therefore, they do not replicate in vivo nephrotoxicity. The kidney is delicate and complex, consisting of a filter unit and a tubular part, which together contain more than 20 different cell types. The tubular epithelium is highly polarized, and maintaining cellular polarity is essential for the optimal function and response to environmental signals. Cell polarity depends on the communication between cells, including paracrine and autocrine signals, as well as biomechanical and chemotaxis processes. These processes affect kidney cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation. For drug disposal research, the microenvironment is essential for predicting toxic reactions. This article reviews the mechanism of drug-induced kidney injury, the types of nephrotoxicity models (in vivo and in vitro models), and the research progress related to drug-induced nephrotoxicity in three-dimensional (3D) cellular culture models.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mi13010003","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,22]],"date-time":"2021-12-22T01:08:09Z","timestamp":1640135289000},"page":"3","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Drug-Induced Nephrotoxicity Assessment in 3D Cellular Models"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Pengfei","family":"Yu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Difficult & Complicated Liver Diseases and Artificial Liver Center, Fourth Department of Liver Disease, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China"},{"name":"Beijing Municipal Key Laboratory of Liver Failure and Artificial Liver Treatment Research, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhongping","family":"Duan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Difficult & Complicated Liver Diseases and Artificial Liver Center, Fourth Department of Liver Disease, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China"},{"name":"Beijing Municipal Key Laboratory of Liver Failure and Artificial Liver Treatment Research, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shuang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Difficult & Complicated Liver Diseases and Artificial Liver Center, Fourth Department of Liver Disease, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China"},{"name":"Beijing Municipal Key Laboratory of Liver Failure and Artificial Liver Treatment Research, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ivan","family":"Pachon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianxing","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George","family":"Hemstreet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Omaha Veterans Administration Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68105, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuanyuan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)60687-X","article-title":"Chronic kidney disease: Global dimension and perspectives","volume":"382","author":"Jha","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"A1","article-title":"United States Renal Data System 2011 Annual Data Report: Atlas of chronic kidney disease & end-stage renal disease in the United States","volume":"59","author":"Collins","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. 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