{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T06:23:37Z","timestamp":1791440617506,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,26]],"date-time":"2022-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1661472000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National International Science and Technology Cooperation Base on Railway Vehicle Operation Engineering of Beijing Jiaotong University","award":["BMRV21KF03"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BMRV21KF03"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Micromachines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) and inertial navigation system (INS) are indispensable for ground vehicle position and navigation. The Kalman filter (KF) is the first choice to integrate them and output more reliable navigation solutions. However, the GNSS signal is denied in urban areas, i.e., tunnels, and the INS position errors diverge quickly over time. Under normal conditions, the ground vehicle will not slide or jump off the ground; nonholonomic constraints (NHC) and odometers are available to aid the INS and reduce its position errors. Factor graph optimization (FGO) recently attracted attention as an advanced sensor fusion algorithm. This paper implemented the FGO method based on GNSS\/INS\/NHC\/Odometer integration. In the FGO, state transformation, measurement model, the NHC, and the odometer were all regarded as constraints employed to construct a graph; an iterative process was utilized to find the optimal estimation results. Two experiments were carried out: firstly, the FGO-GNSS\/INS performance was assessed and compared with the KF-GNSS\/INS; secondly, we compared the FGO-GNSS\/INS\/NHC\/Odometer and KF-GNSS\/INS\/NHC\/Odometer under GNSS denied environments. Experimental results supported that the FGO improved the performance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mi13091400","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,29]],"date-time":"2022-08-29T03:34:56Z","timestamp":1661744096000},"page":"1400","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["GO-INO: Graph Optimization MEMS-IMU\/NHC\/Odometer Integration for Ground Vehicle Positioning"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Kai","family":"Zhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Automobile and Traffic Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou 213001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yating","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Automobile and Traffic Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou 213001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bin","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical, Electronic and Control Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Changhui","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute, Masala, FI-0245 Espoo, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, T., Liu, H., Chen, Q., Zhang, H., and Niu, X. 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