{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T05:30:05Z","timestamp":1790573405545,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":86,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,27]],"date-time":"2023-01-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674777600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01NS110564"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01NS110564"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01NS089688"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01NS089688"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R21DA043817"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R21DA043817"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R21DA049592"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R21DA049592"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Micromachines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The number of people aged 12 years and older using illicit drugs reached 59.3 million in 2020, among which 5.2 million are cocaine users based on the national data. In order to fully understand cocaine addiction and develop effective therapies, a tool is needed to reliably measure real-time cocaine concentration and neural activity in different regions of the brain with high spatial and temporal resolution. Integrated biochemical sensing devices based upon flexible microelectrode arrays (MEA) have emerged as a powerful tool for such purposes; however, MEAs suffer from undesired biofouling and inflammatory reactions, while those with immobilized biologic sensing elements experience additional failures due to biomolecule degradation. Aptasensors are powerful tools for building highly selective sensors for analytes that have been difficult to detect. In this work, DNA aptamer-based electrochemical cocaine sensors were integrated on flexible MEAs and protected with an antifouling zwitterionic poly (sulfobetaine methacrylate) (PSB) coating, in order to prevent sensors from biofouling and degradation by the host tissue. In vitro experiments showed that without the PSB coating, both adsorption of plasma protein albumin and exposure to DNase-1 enzyme have detrimental effects on sensor performance, decreasing signal amplitude and the sensitivity of the sensors. Albumin adsorption caused a 44.4% sensitivity loss, and DNase-1 exposure for 24 hr resulted in a 57.2% sensitivity reduction. The PSB coating successfully protected sensors from albumin fouling and DNase-1 enzyme digestion. In vivo tests showed that the PSB coated MEA aptasensors can detect repeated cocaine infusions in the brain for 3 hrs after implantation without sensitivity degradation. Additionally, the same MEAs can record electrophysiological signals at different tissue depths simultaneously. This novel flexible MEA with integrated cocaine sensors can serve as a valuable tool for understanding the mechanisms of cocaine addiction, while the PSB coating technology can be generalized to improve all implantable devices suffering from biofouling and inflammatory host responses.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mi14020323","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,30]],"date-time":"2023-01-30T06:06:13Z","timestamp":1675058773000},"page":"323","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Zwitterionic Polymer Coated and Aptamer Functionalized Flexible Micro-Electrode Arrays for In Vivo Cocaine Sensing and Electrophysiology"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1858-6615","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bingchen","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA"},{"name":"Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elisa","family":"Castagnola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA 71272, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0470-2005","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xinyan Tracy","family":"Cui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA"},{"name":"Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA"},{"name":"McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2021). 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