{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]],"date-time":"2026-01-31T05:18:36Z","timestamp":1769836716747,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,30]],"date-time":"2023-07-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1690675200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005802","name":"Ministry of Research, Innovation, and Digitalization, CNCS\/UEFISCDI","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PN-III-P1-1.1-PD-2019-1111"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PN-III-P1-1.1-PD-2019-1111"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005802","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Micromachines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Food is humans\u2019 main source of nickel intake, which is responsible for the prevalence of allergic contact dermatitis and other pathological afflictions. While robust, the classical methods for nickel detection\u2014atomic absorption spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry\u2014are expensive and laborious; in contrast, modern methods that utilize sensors\u2014of which most are electrochemical\u2014have rapid run times, are cost-effective, and are easily assembled. Here, we describe the use of four biopolymers (alginate, agar, chitosan, and carrageenan) for receptor immobilization on biosensors to detect nickel ions and use an optimization approach with three biopolymer concentrations to assay analytical performance profiles. We measured the total performance of screen-printed carbon electrodes immobilized with the biopolymer\u2013sensor combinations using cyclic voltammetry (CV). Voltammetric behavior favored the carrageenan biosensor, based on performance characteristics measured using CV, with sensitivities of 2.68 (for 1% biopolymer concentration) and 2.08 (for 0.5% biopolymer concentration). Our results indicated that among the four biopolymer combinations, carrageenan with urease affixed to screen-printed electrodes was effective at coupling for nickel detection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mi14081529","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,31]],"date-time":"2023-07-31T01:28:46Z","timestamp":1690766926000},"page":"1529","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Biopolymers Used for Receptor Immobilization for Nickel-Detection Biosensors in Food"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Liliana","family":"Anchidin-Norocel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Biological Sciences, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, 720229 Suceava, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3442-6582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wesley K.","family":"Savage","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Biological Sciences, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, 720229 Suceava, Romania"},{"name":"Integrated Center for Research, Development and Innovation in Advanced Materials, Nanotechnologies, and Distributed Systems for Fabrication and Control, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, 720229 Suceava, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Roxana","family":"Gheorghita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Biological Sciences, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, 720229 Suceava, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sonia","family":"Amariei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Food Engineering, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, 720229 Suceava, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1007\/s13205-020-02369-0","article-title":"Biosensors: Frontiers in rapid detection of COVID-19","volume":"10","author":"Samson","year":"2020","journal-title":"3 Biotech"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"116198","article-title":"Electrochemical sensing: A prognostic tool in the fight against COVID-19","volume":"136","author":"Kotru","year":"2021","journal-title":"TrAC"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7306","DOI":"10.1021\/acsabm.0c01004","article-title":"Electrochemical SARS-CoV-2 sensing at point-of-care and artificial intelligence for intelligent COVID-19 management","volume":"3","author":"Kaushik","year":"2020","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Bio. Mater."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"67","article-title":"Polymers for biosensors construction","volume":"3","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"State Art Biosens.\u2014Gen. Asp."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1400","DOI":"10.3390\/s80314000","article-title":"Electrochemical biosensors-sensor principles and architectures","volume":"8","author":"Grieshaber","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teepoo, S., Dawan, P., and Barnthip, N. (2017). Electrospun chitosan-gelatin biopolymer composite nanofibers for horseradish peroxidase immobilization in a hydrogen peroxide biosensor. Biosensors, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios7040047"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3184","DOI":"10.1039\/c3cs35528d","article-title":"Biosensors: Sense and sensibility","volume":"42","author":"Turner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1080\/25765299.2019.1691434","article-title":"Biosensors for on-line water quality monitoring\u2014A review","volume":"26","author":"Hossain","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arab J. Basic Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lakard, B. (2020). Electrochemical biosensors based on conducting polymers: A review. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10186614"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alberti, G., Zanoni, C., Losi, V., Magnaghi, L.R., and Biesuz, R. (2021). Current Trends in Polymer Based Sensors. Biosensors, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/chemosensors9050108"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Sharma, M., and Singh, S.P. (2020). Biomass, Biofuels, Biochemicals, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4980","DOI":"10.1039\/D1GC01852C","article-title":"Enzyme entrapment, biocatalyst immobilization without covalent attachment","volume":"23","author":"Imam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Green Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elnashar, M.M. (2011). The Art of Immobilization Using Biopolymers, Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnology, Biotechnology of Biopolymers, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/683"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9814767","DOI":"10.34133\/2022\/9814767","article-title":"A scalable bacterial cellulose ionogel for multisensory electronic skin","volume":"2022","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Research"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bannov, A.G., Popov, M.V., Brester, A.E., and Kurmashov, P.B. (2021). Recent advances in ammonia gas sensors based on carbon nanomaterials. Micromachines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi12020186"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Sawant, S.N. (2017). Biopolymer Composites in Electronics, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Abhilash, M., and Thomas, D. (2017). Biopolymer Composites in Electronics, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pestov, A., and Bratskaya, S. (2016). Chitosan and its derivatives as highly efficient polymer ligands. Molecules, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules21030330"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2003.08.005","article-title":"Metal complexation by chitosan and its derivatives: A review","volume":"55","author":"Varma","year":"2004","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"115982","article-title":"Electrochemical sensors based on molecularly imprinted chitosan: A review","volume":"130","author":"Zouaoui","year":"2020","journal-title":"TrAC"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garcia-Rey, S., Ojeda, E., Gunatilake, U.B., Basabe-Desmonts, L., and Benito-Lopez, F. (2021). Alginate Bead Biosystem for the Determination of Lactate in Sweat Using Image Analysis. Biosensors, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios11100379"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1166\/sl.2017.3882","article-title":"Potentiometric urea biosensor based on immobilization of urease in Kappa-Carrageenan biopolymer","volume":"15","author":"Esmaeili","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2046","DOI":"10.1002\/bit.28122","article-title":"Marine biological macromolecules as matrix material for biosensor fabrication","volume":"119","author":"Bedi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioeng."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"572","article-title":"Immobilization of a thermostable-amylase on agarose and agar matrices and its application in starch stain removal","volume":"13","author":"Prakash","year":"2011","journal-title":"World Appl. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Sudhakar, P., and Singh, A. (2021). Polysaccharides: Properties and Applications, Scrivener Publishing. Available online: https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1002\/9781119711414.ch5."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, C., An, D., Xiao, Q., Chen, F.Q., Zhang, Y.H., Weng, H.F., and Xiao, A.F. (2021). Convenient Agarose Preparation with Hydrogen Peroxide and Desulfation Process Analysis. Mar. Drugs, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/md19060297"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zucca, P., Fernandez-Lafuente, R., and Sanjust, E. (2016). Agarose and its derivatives as supports for enzyme immobilization. Molecules, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules21111577"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"25","article-title":"Update on systemic nickel allergy syndrome and diet","volume":"47","author":"Goldenberg","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Ann. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1525-1470.2010.01130.x","article-title":"Systemic contact dermatitis in children: How an avoidance diet can make a difference","volume":"28","author":"Matiz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatr. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-4632.2009.04307.x","article-title":"Nickel hypersensitivity: A clinical review and call to action","volume":"49","author":"Schram","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1007\/s00775-020-01808-w","article-title":"The structure-based reaction mechanism of urease, a nickel dependent enzyme: Tale of a long debate","volume":"25","author":"Mazzei","year":"2020","journal-title":"JBIC J. Biol. Inorg. Chem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364891","DOI":"10.1155\/2010\/364891","article-title":"Computational modeling of the mechanism of urease","volume":"2010","author":"Carlsson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bioinorg. Chem. Appl."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.synthmet.2022.117205","article-title":"One-step electrochemical approach of enzyme immobilization for bioelectrochemical applications","volume":"291","author":"Shen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Synth. Met."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115081","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2023.115081","article-title":"An electrochemical immunosensor for the detection of Glypican-3 based on enzymatic ferrocene-tyramine deposition reaction","volume":"225","author":"Lu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferlazzo, A., Espro, C., Iannazzo, D., and Neri, G. Development of a novel potentiometric PHD\/SPE biosensor for the determination of phenylalanine. Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA), Messina, Italy, 22\u201324 June 2022.","DOI":"10.1109\/MeMeA54994.2022.9856414"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anchidin-Norocel, L., Savage, W.K., Gutt, G., and Amariei, S. (2021). Development, Optimization, Characterization, and Application of Electrochemical Biosensors for Detecting Nickel Ions in Food. Biosensors, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios11120519"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Norocel, L., and Gutt, G. (2019). Screen-Printed Voltammetric Biosensors for the Determination of Copper in Wine. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19214618"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1111\/ajgw.12375","article-title":"Development and performance testing of an electrochemical sensor for determination of iron ions in wine","volume":"25","author":"Norocel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aust. J. Grape Wine Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferrari, E. (2023). Gold nanoparticle-based plasmonic biosensors. Biosensors, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios13030411"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122699","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2021.122699","article-title":"On the performance of carbon-based screen-printed electrodes for (in) organic hydroperoxides sensing in rainwater","volume":"234","author":"Iniesta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2021.122301","article-title":"Paper-based analytical device with colorimetric detection for urease activity determination in soils and evaluation of potential inhibitors","volume":"230","author":"Tavares","year":"2021","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2008.04.025","article-title":"Urea biosensors","volume":"134","author":"Singh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583739","DOI":"10.3389\/fmats.2020.583739","article-title":"Materials and methods of biosensor interfaces with stability","volume":"7","author":"Song","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Mater."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1039\/D0QM00026D","article-title":"Chemically modified nucleic acid biopolymers used in biosensing","volume":"4","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mater. Chem. Front."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lanzalaco, S., and Molina, B.G. (2020). Polymers and plastics modified electrodes for biosensors: A review. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25102446"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2011.03.030","article-title":"Carbon nanotube-chitosan modified disposable pencil graphite electrode for Vitamin B 12 analysis","volume":"87","author":"Kuralay","year":"2011","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2853","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.8b03287","article-title":"Safe and effective removal of urea by urease-immobilized, carboxyl-functionalized PES beads with good reusability and storage stability","volume":"4","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.2298\/JSC1002175P","article-title":"Immobilization of urease in alginate, paraffin and lac","volume":"75","author":"Pithawala","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Serbian Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1007\/s00449-006-0073-0","article-title":"Immobilization of urease by using chitosan\u2013alginate and poly (acrylamide-co-acrylic acid)\/\u03ba-carrageenan supports","volume":"29","author":"Kara","year":"2006","journal-title":"Bioprocess Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1007\/s12010-007-0022-7","article-title":"Immobilization of urease from pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) on agar tablets and its application in urea assay","volume":"142","author":"Mulagalapalli","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1080\/10242420500208852","article-title":"Free vs. chitosan-immobilized urease: Microenvironmental effects on enzyme inhibitions","volume":"23","author":"Krajewska","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biocatal. Biotransform."}],"container-title":["Micromachines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-666X\/14\/8\/1529\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:22:30Z","timestamp":1760127750000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-666X\/14\/8\/1529"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,30]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8]]}},"alternative-id":["mi14081529"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mi14081529","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-666X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-666X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,30]]}}}