{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]],"date-time":"2026-10-12T19:08:41Z","timestamp":1791832121532,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,21]],"date-time":"2025-01-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737417600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institutes of Health","award":["R01NS104344"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01NS104344"]}]},{"name":"University of Texas at Dallas","award":["R01NS104344"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01NS104344"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Micromachines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Implantable microelectrode arrays (MEAs) enable the recording of electrical activity from cortical neurons for applications that include brain\u2013machine interfaces. However, MEAs show reduced recording capabilities under chronic implantation conditions. This has largely been attributed to the brain\u2019s foreign body response, which is marked by neuroinflammation and gliosis in the immediate vicinity of the MEA implantation site. This has prompted the development of novel MEAs with either coatings or architectures that aim to reduce the tissue response. The present study examines the comparative performance of multi-shank planar, silicon-based devices and low-flexural-rigidity amorphous silicon carbide (a-SiC) MEAs that have a similar architecture but differ with respect to the shank cross-sectional area. Data from a-SiC arrays were previously reported in a prior study from our group. In a manner consistent with the prior work, larger cross-sectional area silicon-based arrays were implanted in the motor cortex of female Sprague-Dawley rats and weekly recordings were made for 16 weeks after implantation. Single unit metrics from the recordings were compared over the implantation period between the device types. Overall, the expression of single units measured from a-SiC devices was significantly higher than for silicon-based MEAs throughout the implantation period. Immunohistochemical analysis demonstrated reduced neuroinflammation and gliosis around the a-SiC MEAs compared to silicon-based devices. Our findings demonstrate that the a-SiC MEAs with a smaller shank cross-sectional area can record single unit activity with more stability and exhibit a reduced inflammatory response compared to the silicon-based device employed in this study.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mi16020113","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,21]],"date-time":"2025-01-21T04:19:51Z","timestamp":1737433191000},"page":"113","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Enhanced Performance of Novel Amorphous Silicon Carbide Microelectrode Arrays in Rat Motor Cortex"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Pegah","family":"Haghighi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-8714-3517","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eleanor N.","family":"Jeakle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8161-9723","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brandon S.","family":"Sturgill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Justin R.","family":"Abbott","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elysandra","family":"Solis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2054-5262","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Veda S.","family":"Devata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gayathri","family":"Vijayakumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ana G.","family":"Hernandez-Reynoso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6316-3032","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stuart F.","family":"Cogan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8276-3690","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joseph J.","family":"Pancrazio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-bioeng-110220-110833","article-title":"Neural Plasticity in Sensorimotor Brain-Machine Interfaces","volume":"25","author":"Dadarlat","year":"2023","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1007\/s10143-023-02038-9","article-title":"Applications of brain-computer interfaces in neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"46","author":"Tayebi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurosurg. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1038\/s41378-022-00451-6","article-title":"Implantable intracortical microelectrodes: Reviewing the present with a focus on the future","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microsyst. Nanoeng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10987","article-title":"Restoration of grasp following paralysis through brain-controlled stimulation of muscles","volume":"485","author":"Ethier","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"045005","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/8\/4\/045005","article-title":"Long-term stability of neural prosthetic control signals from silicon cortical arrays in rhesus macaque motor cortex","volume":"8","author":"Chestek","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2014.12.010","article-title":"Comprehensive chronic laminar single-unit, multi-unit, and local field potential recording performance with planar single shank electrode arrays","volume":"242","author":"Kozai","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1900558","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.201900558","article-title":"A Critical Review of Microelectrode Arrays and Strategies for Improving Neural Interfaces","volume":"8","author":"Ferguson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-8993(03)03023-3","article-title":"Brain responses to micro-machined silicon devices","volume":"983","author":"Szarowski","year":"2003","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/3\/3\/002","article-title":"Effects of insertion conditions on tissue strain and vascular damage during neuroprosthetic device insertion","volume":"3","author":"Bjornsson","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thelin, J., Jorntell, H., Psouni, E., Garwicz, M., Schouenborg, J., Danielsen, N., and Linsmeier, C.E. (2011). Implant size and fixation mode strongly influence tissue reactions in the CNS. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0016267"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1109\/10.141202","article-title":"Factors influencing the biocompatibility of insertable silicon microshafts in cerebral cortex","volume":"39","author":"Edell","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/2\/4\/006","article-title":"A finite-element model of the mechanical effects of implantable microelectrodes in the cerebral cortex","volume":"2","author":"Subbaroyan","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109388","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2021.109388","article-title":"Neural tissue-microelectrode interaction: Brain micromotion, electrical impedance, and flexible microelectrode insertion","volume":"365","author":"Sharafkhani","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1006\/exnr.1998.6983","article-title":"Cerebral astrocyte response to micromachined silicon implants","volume":"156","author":"Turner","year":"1999","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1098-1136(199910)28:1<40::AID-GLIA5>3.0.CO;2-6","article-title":"Diffusion barriers evoked in the rat cortex by reactive astrogliosis","volume":"28","author":"Roitbak","year":"1999","journal-title":"Glia"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"056003","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/6\/5\/056003","article-title":"Implanted neural electrodes cause chronic, local inflammation that is correlated with local neurodegeneration","volume":"6","author":"McConnell","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"045006","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/8\/4\/045006","article-title":"Theoretical analysis of intracortical microelectrode recordings","volume":"8","author":"Lempka","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"036012","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/13\/3\/036012","article-title":"Correlations between histology and neuronal activity recorded by microelectrodes implanted chronically in the cerebral cortex","volume":"13","author":"McCreery","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gori, M., Vadala, G., Giannitelli, S.M., Denaro, V., and Di Pino, G. (2021). Biomedical and Tissue Engineering Strategies to Control Foreign Body Reaction to Invasive Neural Electrodes. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2021.659033"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carnicer-Lombarte, A., Chen, S.T., Malliaras, G.G., and Barone, D.G. (2021). Foreign Body Reaction to Implanted Biomaterials and Its Impact in Nerve Neuroprosthetics. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2021.622524"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abbott, J.R., Jeakle, E.N., Haghighi, P., Usoro, J.O., Sturgill, B.S., Wu, Y., Geramifard, N., Radhakrishna, R., Patnaik, S., and Nakajima, S. (2024). Planar amorphous silicon carbide microelectrode arrays for chronic recording in rat motor cortex. Biomaterials, 308.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2024.122543"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4066","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1555676","article-title":"Dielectric properties of amorphous hydrogenated silicon carbide thin films grown by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition","volume":"93","author":"Brassard","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Saddow, S.E. (2016). Silicon Carbide Biotechnology, Elsevier. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1002\/jbm.a.10152","article-title":"Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposited silicon carbide as an implantable dielectric coating","volume":"67A","author":"Cogan","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeakle, E.N., Abbott, J.R., Usoro, J.O., Wu, Y., Haghighi, P., Radhakrishna, R., Sturgill, B.S., Nakajima, S., Thai, T.T.D., and Pancrazio, J.J. (2023). Chronic Stability of Local Field Potentials Using Amorphous Silicon Carbide Microelectrode Arrays Implanted in the Rat Motor Cortex. Micromachines, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi14030680"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1601966","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1601966","article-title":"Ultraflexible nanoelectronic probes form reliable, glial scar-free neural integration","volume":"3","author":"Luan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2024, July 24). Hierarchical Cluster: Group Observations Using a Tree of Clusters. Available online: https:\/\/www.jmp.com\/support\/help\/en\/18.1\/index.shtml#page\/jmp\/hierarchical-cluster.shtml."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2007.03.024","article-title":"Neural probe design for reduced tissue encapsulation in CNS","volume":"28","author":"Seymour","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1126\/science.adh3916","article-title":"Ultraflexible endovascular probes for brain recording through micrometer-scale vasculature","volume":"381","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"016007","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/aa8f8b","article-title":"Amorphous silicon carbide ultramicroelectrode arrays for neural stimulation and recording","volume":"15","author":"Deku","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1557\/s43579-024-00617-5","article-title":"Materials for flexible and soft brain-computer interfaces, a review","volume":"14","author":"Remy","year":"2024","journal-title":"MRS Commun."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61621","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.4c11773","article-title":"Flexible and Extensible Ribbon-Cable Interconnects for Implantable Electrical Neural Interfaces","volume":"16","author":"Geramifard","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stiller, A.M., Black, B.J., Kung, C., Ashok, A., Cogan, S.F., Varner, V.D., and Pancrazio, J.J. (2018). A Meta-Analysis of Intracortical Device Stiffness and Its Correlation with Histological Outcomes. Micromachines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi9090443"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2023.07.027","article-title":"Structural and functional changes of deep layer pyramidal neurons surrounding microelectrode arrays implanted in rat motor cortex","volume":"168","author":"Gregory","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Biomater."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoeferlin, G.F., Bajwa, T., Olivares, H., Zhang, J., Druschel, L.N., Sturgill, B.S., Sobota, M., Boucher, P., Duncan, J., and Hernandez-Reynoso, A.G. (2023). Antioxidant Dimethyl Fumarate Temporarily but Not Chronically Improves Intracortical Microelectrode Performance. Micromachines, 14.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202308.1405.v1"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stiller, A.M., Usoro, J., Frewin, C.L., Danda, V.R., Ecker, M., Joshi-Imre, A., Musselman, K.C., Voit, W., Modi, R., and Pancrazio, J.J. (2018). Chronic Intracortical Recording and Electrochemical Stability of Thiol-ene\/Acrylate Shape Memory Polymer Electrode Arrays. Micromachines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi9100500"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sturgill, B., Radhakrishna, R., Thai, T.T.D., Patnaik, S.S., Capadona, J.R., and Pancrazio, J.J. (2022). Characterization of Active Electrode Yield for Intracortical Arrays: Awake versus Anesthesia. Micromachines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi13030480"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"1604","article-title":"Common median referencing for improved action potential detection with multielectrode arrays","volume":"2009","author":"Rolston","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. Int. Conf. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2014.07.039","article-title":"Chronic tissue response to carboxymethyl cellulose based dissolvable insertion needle for ultra-small neural probes","volume":"35","author":"Kozai","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9620","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2014.08.006","article-title":"Effects of caspase-1 knockout on chronic neural recording quality and longevity: Insight into cellular and molecular mechanisms of the reactive tissue response","volume":"35","author":"Kozai","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Usoro, J.O., Dogra, K., Abbott, J.R., Radhakrishna, R., Cogan, S.F., Pancrazio, J.J., and Patnaik, S.S. (2021). Influence of Implantation Depth on the Performance of Intracortical Probe Recording Sites. Micromachines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi12101158"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1623","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-03940-3","article-title":"Layer-specific morphological and molecular differences in neocortical astrocytes and their dependence on neuronal layers","volume":"9","author":"Lanjakornsiripan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(93)90884-P","article-title":"Numerical data on neocortical neurons in adult rat, with special reference to the GABA population","volume":"609","author":"Beaulieu","year":"1993","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1065","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat3468","article-title":"Ultrasmall implantable composite microelectrodes with bioactive surfaces for chronic neural interfaces","volume":"11","author":"Kozai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3919","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2014.01.038","article-title":"The relationship between glial cell mechanosensitivity and foreign body reactions in the central nervous system","volume":"35","author":"Moshayedi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Darlot, F., Villard, P., Salam, L.A., Rousseau, L., and Piret, G. (2024). Glial scarring around intra-cortical MEA implants with flexible and free microwires inserted using biodegradable PLGA needles. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1408088"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Guo, L. (2020). Failure Modes of Implanted Neural Interfaces. Neural Interface Engineering: Linking the Physical World and the Nervous System, Springer International Publishing."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weltman, A., Yoo, J., and Meng, E. (2016). Flexible, Penetrating Brain Probes Enabled by Advances in Polymer Microfabrication. Micromachines, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi7100180"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"036033","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/ad5049","article-title":"Neuronal functional connectivity is impaired in a layer dependent manner near chronically implanted intracortical microelectrodes in C57BL6 wildtype mice","volume":"21","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12307","DOI":"10.1039\/D4TB01628A","article-title":"Cell-specific spatial profiling of targeted protein expression to characterize the impact of intracortical microelectrode implantation on neuronal health","volume":"12","author":"Druschel","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"}],"container-title":["Micromachines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-666X\/16\/2\/113\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:32:38Z","timestamp":1759919558000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-666X\/16\/2\/113"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,21]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["mi16020113"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mi16020113","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-666X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-666X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,21]]}}}