{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T20:33:53Z","timestamp":1790886833248,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759190400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Micromachines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This research explores a phase-shift-based discontinuous PWM method used for 24 V battery-powered onboard micro inverters, which are critical for thermally limited applications like micromachines, where efficient heat dissipation and compact size are paramount. Discontinuous pulse width modulation (DPWM) reduces switching losses by clamping the phase voltage to the DC bus in order to improve inverter efficiency. Due to the change in power factor at different operating points from motors or the inductor load, the use of only one DPWM method cannot achieve the optimal efficiency of a three-phase voltage source inverter (3ph-VSI). This paper proposes a generalized DPWM method with a continuously adjustable phase shift angle, which extends the six traditional DPWM methods to any type. According to different power factors, the proposed DPWM method is divided into five power factor angle intervals, namely [\u221290\u00b0, \u221260\u00b0], [\u221260\u00b0, \u221230\u00b0], [\u221230\u00b0, 30\u00b0], [30\u00b0, 60\u00b0], and [60\u00b0, 90\u00b0], and automatically adjusts the phase shift angle to the optimal-efficiency DPWM mode. The power factor is calculated by means of the Synchronous Reference Frame Phase-Locked Loop (SRF-PLL) method. The switching losses and harmonic characteristics of the proposed DPWM are analyzed, and finally, a 24 V onboard 3ph-VSI experimental platform is built. The experimental results show that the efficiency of DPWM methods can be improved by 3\u20136% and the switching loss can be reduced by 40\u201350% under different power factors. At the same time, the dynamic performance of the proposed algorithm with a transition state is verified. This method is particularly suitable for miniaturized inverters where efficiency and thermal management are critical.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mi16101128","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T14:16:29Z","timestamp":1759241789000},"page":"1128","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Research on a Phase-Shift-Based Discontinuous PWM Method for 24V Onboard Thermally Limited Micro Voltage Source Inverters"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Shuo","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, University Road No.1, Xuzhou 221116, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chenyang","family":"Xia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, University Road No.1, Xuzhou 221116, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Irudayaraj, S.S., and Emadi, A. (2005, January 15). Micromachines: Principles of operation, dynamics, and control. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Electric Machines and Drives, San Antonio, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMDC.2005.195860"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.22385\/jctecs.v10i0.144","article-title":"Development of a Microcontroller-Based 6\/12\/18\/24 V Power Inverter Circuit","volume":"10","author":"Ogunseye","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Commun. Technol. Electron. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lian, Q., Han, P., and Mei, N. (2022). A review of converter circuits for ambient micro energy harvesting. Micromachines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi13122222"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13672","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.4c02646","article-title":"Charge-Based Separation of Microparticles Using AC Insulator-Based Dielectrophoresis","volume":"96","author":"Tabarhoseini","year":"2024","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2401371","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202401371","article-title":"Ambient Moisture-Driven Self-Powered Iontophoresis Patch for Enhanced Transdermal Drug Delivery","volume":"13","author":"Ge","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhattacharya, S., Mascarella, D., and Joos, G. (2014, January 15\u201318). Interleaved SVPWM and DPWM for dual three-phase inverter-PMSM: An automotive application. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC), Dearborn, MI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITEC.2014.6861785"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8102","DOI":"10.1109\/TPEL.2023.3260772","article-title":"Theoretical study of rampwise DPWM technique to reduce motor acoustic noise","volume":"38","author":"Ayano","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Electron."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1966","DOI":"10.1109\/JESTPE.2018.2812704","article-title":"Triangle carrier-based DPWM for three-level NPC inverters","volume":"6","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Emerg. Sel. Top. Power Electron."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1109\/TPEL.2020.3002660","article-title":"A modified DPWM with neutral point voltage balance capability for three-phase Vienna rectifiers","volume":"36","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Electron."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7177","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2018.2873524","article-title":"A carrier-based discontinuous PWM method with varying clamped area for Vienna rectifier","volume":"66","author":"Zhu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2007.896554","article-title":"Reduction of switching losses in active power filters with a new generalized discontinuous-PWM strategy","volume":"55","author":"Asiminoaei","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, K., Wei, M., Xie, C., Deng, F., Guerrero, J.M., and Vasquez, J.C. (2017, January 26\u201330). A generalized discontinuous PWM based neutral point voltage balancing method for three-level NPC voltage source inverter with switching losses reduction. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), Tampa, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/APEC.2017.7930945"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Artal-Sevil, J.S., Bernal-Agust\u00edn, J.L., Beyza, J., and Ruiz-Paredes, H.F. (2019, January 13\u201315). Generalized Discontinuous PWM strategy applied to a grid-connected Modular Multilevel Converter. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Autumn Meeting on Power, Electronics and Computing (ROPEC), Ixtapa, Mexico.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROPEC48299.2019.9057079"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2012.2223221","article-title":"Study on the novel generalized discontinuous SVPWM strategies for three-phase voltage source inverters","volume":"9","author":"An","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1109\/28.720446","article-title":"A high-performance generalized discontinuous PWM algorithm","volume":"34","author":"Hava","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1109\/TPEL.2010.2054837","article-title":"Comparison of the effects of continuous and discontinuous PWM schemes on power losses of voltage-sourced inverters for induction motor drives","volume":"26","author":"Wu","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Electron."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holmes, D.G., and Lipo, T.A. (2003). Pulse Width Modulation for Power Converters: Principles and Practice, Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1109\/9780470546284"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1412","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2020.2967741","article-title":"Current ripple prediction and DPWM-based variable switching frequency control for full ZVS range three-phase inverter","volume":"68","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"356","article-title":"DPWM Control Strategy of Auxiliary Inverter for Urban Rail Transit Based on Adaptive Power Factor","volume":"41","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. CSEE"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"3005","article-title":"Performance Optimization of the Minimum-Loss PWM Algorithm for Three Phase Voltage Inverter","volume":"36","author":"Du","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. CSEE"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"1674","article-title":"Pulse Width Modulation Strategy for Three-phase Voltage Source Inverters Based on Multi-objective Satisfactory Optimization","volume":"36","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. CSEE"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6698","DOI":"10.1109\/TPEL.2015.2501548","article-title":"A generalized algorithm to eliminate spikes of common-mode voltages for CMVRPWM","volume":"31","author":"Tan","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Electron."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, H.J., Yoo, A., and Hong, C. (2015, January 20\u201324). A carrier-based adjustable discontinuous PWM for three-phase voltage source inverter. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ECCE.2015.7310062"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4445","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2010.2102311","article-title":"A direct digital technique implementation of general discontinuous pulse width modulation strategy","volume":"58","author":"Nguyen","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1109\/TPEL.2009.2030200","article-title":"Space-vector-based hybrid pulsewidth modulation techniques for reduced harmonic distortion and switching loss","volume":"25","author":"Zhao","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Electron."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1377","DOI":"10.1109\/61.57980","article-title":"Powers in nonsinusoidal situations-a review of definitions and physical meaning","volume":"5","author":"Emanuel","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Deliv."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Chang, G.W., Chen, C.Y., and Wu, M.C. (2006, January 21\u201324). Measuring harmonics by an improved FFT-based algorithm with considering frequency variations. Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS), Island of Kos, Greece."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.11591\/ijape.v13.i4.pp934-943","article-title":"Phase-locked loop based synchronization schemes for three-phase unbalanced and distorted grid: A review","volume":"13","author":"Tripathy","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Power Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2960","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-pel.2019.1003","article-title":"Switching losses prediction methods oriented to power MOSFETs\u2014A review","volume":"13","author":"Tavares","year":"2020","journal-title":"IET Power Electron."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, Z.J., Xiong, Y., Cheng, X., Fu, Y., and Kumar, P. (2006, January 8\u201312). Power MOSFET switching loss analysis: A new insight. Proceedings of the Conference Record of the 2006 IEEE Industry Applications Conference Forty-First IAS Annual Meeting, Tampa, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IAS.2006.256719"}],"container-title":["Micromachines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-666X\/16\/10\/1128\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T14:16:42Z","timestamp":1759241802000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-666X\/16\/10\/1128"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]},"references-count":30,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["mi16101128"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mi16101128","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-666X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-666X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]}}}