{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T23:26:05Z","timestamp":1790810765128,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":144,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]],"date-time":"2025-12-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766620800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Micromachines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Active propelled micro robots (MRs) represent a transformative shift in biomedical engineering, engineered to navigate physiological environments by converting chemical, acoustic, or magnetic energy into mechanical propulsion. Unlike passive delivery systems limited by diffusion and systemic clearance, MRs offer autonomous mobility, enabling precise penetration and retention in hard-to-reach tissues. This review provides comprehensive analysis of MR technologies within urology, a field uniquely suited for microrobotic intervention due to the urinary tract\u2019s anatomical accessibility and fluid-filled nature. We explore how MRs address critical therapeutic limitations, including the high recurrence of kidney stones and the rapid washout of intravesical bladder cancer therapies. The review categorizes propulsion mechanisms optimized for the urinary environment, such as urea-fueled nanomotors and magnetic swarms. Furthermore, we detail emerging applications, including bioresorbable acoustic robots for tumor ablation and magnetic grippers for minimally invasive biopsies. Finally, we critically assess the path toward clinical translation, focusing on challenges in biocompatibility, real-time tracking (MRI, MPI, photoacoustic imaging), and the regulatory landscape for these advanced combination products.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mi17010024","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]],"date-time":"2025-12-26T00:50:21Z","timestamp":1766710221000},"page":"24","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Active Propelled Micro Robots in Drug Delivery for Urologic Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Chunlian","family":"Zhong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA"},{"name":"Stony Brook Cancer Center, Renaissance School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Menghuan","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Medicine, University of California Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2737-7636","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhaoqing","family":"Cong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA"},{"name":"Stony Brook Cancer Center, Renaissance School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S90","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.16539","article-title":"Precision medicine and therapies of the future","volume":"62","author":"Sisodiya","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, R.C., and Wang, Z. (2023). Precision medicine: Disease subtyping and tailored treatment. Cancers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers15153837"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lou, J., Duan, H., Qin, Q., Teng, Z., Gan, F., Zhou, X., and Zhou, X. (2023). Advances in oral drug delivery systems: Challenges and opportunities. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15020484"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-bioeng-081523-033131","article-title":"Medical microrobots","volume":"26","author":"Iacovacci","year":"2024","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100279","DOI":"10.1002\/aisy.202100279","article-title":"Control and autonomy of microrobots: Recent progress and perspective","volume":"4","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e17488","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e17488","article-title":"Advances in drug delivery systems, challenges and future directions","volume":"9","author":"Ezike","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pal, S., Naveen, D., and Debroy, S. (2025). Introduction to Drug Delivery System: Past, Present, and Future Perspectives. Next-Generation Drug Delivery Systems, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-0716-4554-3_1"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e067606","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj-2021-067606","article-title":"Response to acute monotherapy for major depressive disorder in randomized, placebo controlled trials submitted to the US Food and Drug Administration: Individual participant data analysis","volume":"378","author":"Stone","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"182","article-title":"Emerging nanoformulation strategies for phytocompounds and applications from drug delivery to phototherapy to imaging","volume":"14","author":"Han","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bioact. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1186\/s12951-025-03209-0","article-title":"Emerging strategies against accelerated blood clearance phenomenon of nanocarrier drug delivery systems","volume":"23","author":"Pan","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Nanobiotechnol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prakash, A., Malviya, R., and Sridhar, S.B. (2025). Targeting the Reticuloendothelial System for the Management of Neurological Disorders. Curr. Drug Ther.","DOI":"10.2174\/0115748855410983250827042543"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Plaunt, A.J., Nguyen, T.L., Corboz, M.R., Malinin, V.S., and Cipolla, D.C. (2022). Strategies to overcome biological barriers associated with pulmonary drug delivery. Pharmaceutics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14020302"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2303266","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202303266","article-title":"Physiological barriers and strategies of lipid-based nanoparticles for nucleic acid drug delivery","volume":"36","author":"Hu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2209883","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202209883","article-title":"Advances in chemically powered micro\/nanorobots for biological applications: A review","volume":"33","author":"Feng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1007\/s12213-022-00148-z","article-title":"Acoustic power management by swarms of microscopic robots","volume":"17","author":"Hogg","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Micro-Bio Robot."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"848","DOI":"10.1039\/D2LC00573E","article-title":"A review on microrobots driven by optical and magnetic fields","volume":"23","author":"Hou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1039\/D4ME00090K","article-title":"Empowering tomorrow\u2019s medicine: Energy-driven micro\/nano-robots redefining biomedical applications","volume":"9","author":"Preetam","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Syst. Des. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2408813","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202408813","article-title":"Localized Microrobotic Delivery of Enzyme-Responsive Hydrogel-Immobilized Therapeutics to Suppress Triple-Negative Breast Cancer","volume":"21","author":"Tian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-fluid-121021-042929","article-title":"Fluid dynamics of squirmers and ciliated microorganisms","volume":"56","author":"Ishikawa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"013103","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevFluids.6.013103","article-title":"Fluid dynamics and efficiency of colonial swimming via multijet propulsion at intermediate Reynolds numbers","volume":"6","author":"Jiang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1038\/s42005-024-01724-4","article-title":"Drag force on a microrobot propelled through blood","volume":"7","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Commun. Phys."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2681","DOI":"10.1109\/TCST.2021.3139192","article-title":"Modeling and estimation of self-phoretic magnetic Janus microrobot with uncontrollable inputs","volume":"30","author":"Folio","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Control Syst. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5365","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.0c00999","article-title":"Smart materials for microrobots","volume":"122","author":"Soto","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1120","DOI":"10.1126\/science.adh3073","article-title":"Delivering drugs with microrobots","volume":"382","author":"Nelson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saldana, M., Gallegos, S., G\u00e1lvez, E., Castillo, J., Salinas-Rodr\u00edguez, E., Cerecedo-S\u00e1enz, E., Hern\u00e1ndez-\u00c1vila, J., Navarra, A., and Toro, N. (2024). The Reynolds Number: A Journey from Its Origin to Modern Applications. Fluids, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/fluids9120299"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/9\/4\/089","article-title":"Asymptotic exponents from low-Reynolds-number flows","volume":"9","author":"Schumacher","year":"2007","journal-title":"New J. Phys."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1017\/S002211200300380X","article-title":"Inertial and viscous forces on a rigid sphere in straining flows at moderate Reynolds numbers","volume":"481","author":"Bagchi","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"061703","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2738609","article-title":"Continuous breakdown of Purcell\u2019s scallop theorem with inertia","volume":"19","author":"Lauga","year":"2007","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, L., Su, G., Zhang, M., Wen, Q., Wang, L., and Li, J. (2025). Propulsion Mechanisms in Magnetic Microrobotics: From Single Microrobots to Swarms. Micromachines, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi16020181"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24174","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.5c03911","article-title":"Technology Roadmap of Micro\/Nanorobots","volume":"19","author":"Ju","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2007102","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202007102","article-title":"Chemically propelled nano and micromotors in the body: Quo vadis?","volume":"17","author":"Somasundar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1414","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.201406096","article-title":"Chemically powered micro-and nanomotors","volume":"54","author":"Soler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Z., Li, Q., Cao, W., Wei, J., He, L., Zheng, X., and Li, X. (2025). Self-electrophoresis-propelled and self-built electric field-enhanced photocatalytic nanomotors for round-the-clock environmental remediation. Mater. Horiz.","DOI":"10.1039\/D5MH00902B"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pu, R., Yang, X., Mu, H., Xu, Z., and He, J. (2024). Current status and future application of electrically controlled micro\/nanorobots in biomedicine. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1353660"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1604759","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201604759","article-title":"Nano\/microrobots meet electrochemistry","volume":"27","author":"Moo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, K., Chen, T., Liu, H., and Yang, Z. (2015, January 7\u201311). A Pt\/Au hybrid self-actuating nanorobot towards to durg delivery system. Proceedings of the 10th IEEE International Conference on Nano\/Micro Engineered and Molecular Systems, Xi\u2019an, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/NEMS.2015.7147428"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3741","DOI":"10.1039\/D3LC00404J","article-title":"Micro-\/nanoscale robotics for chemical and biological sensing","volume":"23","author":"Zheng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4570","DOI":"10.1002\/elps.200600055","article-title":"Metabolite profiling of human urine by CE-ESI-MS using separation electrolytes at low pH","volume":"27","author":"Benavente","year":"2006","journal-title":"Electrophoresis"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Yadav, V. (2015). Self-Propelled Systems for Versatile Applications. [Ph.D. Thesis, The Pennsylvania State University]."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"032011","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0085746","article-title":"Self-diffusiophoresis of Janus particles that release ions","volume":"34","author":"Asmolov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Phys. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5580","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.langmuir.6b01214","article-title":"Self-diffusiophoresis of Janus catalytic micromotors in confined geometries","volume":"32","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3022","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemmater.1c00192","article-title":"Recent advances in heterosilica-based micro\/nanomotors: Designs, biomedical applications, and future perspectives","volume":"33","author":"Yan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6986","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemrev.1c00571","article-title":"Diffusiophoresis, diffusioosmosis, and microfluidics: Surface-flow-driven phenomena in the presence of flow","volume":"122","author":"Shim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Y., Dai, L., and Jiao, N. (2022). Review of bubble applications in microrobotics: Propulsion, manipulation, and assembly. Micromachines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi13071068"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2300409","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202300409","article-title":"Bubble-Based Microrobots With Rapid Circular Motions for Epithelial Pinning and Drug Delivery","volume":"19","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Das, S., Steager, E.B., Stebe, K.J., and Kumar, V. (2017, January 17\u201321). Simultaneous control of spherical microrobots using catalytic and magnetic actuation. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Manipulation, Automation and Robotics at Small Scales (MARSS), Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/MARSS.2017.8001924"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2208259","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202208259","article-title":"Magnetically driven self-degrading zinc-containing cystine microrobots for treatment of prostate cancer","volume":"19","author":"Ussia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eade4642","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.ade4642","article-title":"High energy density picoliter-scale zinc-air microbatteries for colloidal robotics","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1704252","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.201704252","article-title":"Magnesium-based micromotors: Water-powered propulsion, multifunctionality, and biomedical and environmental applications","volume":"14","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1982","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.nanolett.0c04438","article-title":"Magnesium-based micromotors as hydrogen generators for precise rheumatoid arthritis therapy","volume":"21","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101026","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmt.2021.101026","article-title":"Multi-response biocompatible Janus micromotor for ultrasonic imaging contrast enhancement","volume":"23","author":"Feng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24343","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.3c10405","article-title":"Urease-powered micromotors with spatially selective distribution of enzymes for capturing and sensing exosomes","volume":"17","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaba6137","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aba6137","article-title":"Enzyme-powered Janus platelet cell robots for active and targeted drug delivery","volume":"5","author":"Tang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.4c02996","article-title":"Urease-Driven Janus Nanomotors for Dynamic Enrichment and Multiplexed Detection of Bladder Cancer MicroRNAs in Urine","volume":"10","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3019","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.3c11772","article-title":"Urease-powered black TiO2 micromotors for photothermal therapy of bladder cancer","volume":"16","author":"Amiri","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2201559","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.202201559","article-title":"Glucose-responsive enzymatic cascade microreactors in gas-shearing microfluidics microcapsules","volume":"8","author":"Qu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfa.2025.137240","article-title":"Dual chemotaxis of glucose oxidase-powered nanomotors towards the concentration gradients of both glucose and proton","volume":"721","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16701","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.4c01760","article-title":"Catalase-powered nanobots for overcoming the mucus barrier","volume":"18","author":"Bakenecker","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.0c07753","article-title":"External power-driven microrobotic swarm: From fundamental understanding to imaging-guided delivery","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1603250","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201603250","article-title":"Fuel-free synthetic micro-\/nanomachines","volume":"29","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2101256","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.202101256","article-title":"External Field-Driven Untethered Microrobots for Targeted Cargo Delivery","volume":"7","author":"Zhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4425","DOI":"10.1021\/acsabm.2c00565","article-title":"Pollen Typhae-Based Magnetic-Powered Microrobots toward Acute Gastric Bleeding Treatment","volume":"5","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Bio Mater."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259","DOI":"10.1039\/C2NR32554C","article-title":"Bio-inspired magnetic swimming microrobots for biomedical applications","volume":"5","author":"Peyer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5729","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2025.3557225","article-title":"Swimming performance enhancement of the magnetic helical microrobots based on surface microstructure modification","volume":"10","author":"Hou","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1706066","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201706066","article-title":"Janus microdimer surface walkers propelled by oscillating magnetic fields","volume":"28","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2200118","DOI":"10.1002\/aisy.202200118","article-title":"Magnet-Driven Microwalker in Surface Motion Based on Frictional Anisotropy","volume":"4","author":"Jia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364913483183","article-title":"Independent control of multiple magnetic microrobots in three dimensions","volume":"32","author":"Diller","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Robot. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ryan, P., and Diller, E. (2016, January 16\u201321). Five-degree-of-freedom magnetic control of micro-robots using rotating permanent magnets. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Stockholm, Sweden.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2016.7487317"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiao, Y., Zhang, J., Fang, B., Zhao, X., and Hao, N. (2022). Acoustics-actuated microrobots. Micromachines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi13030481"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2004043","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202004043","article-title":"Density asymmetry driven propulsion of ultrasound-powered Janus micromotors","volume":"30","author":"Soto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadh5260","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adh5260","article-title":"An acoustically controlled helical microrobot","volume":"9","author":"Deng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1007\/s00345-022-04088-y","article-title":"The evolving role of contrast-enhanced ultrasound in urology: A review","volume":"41","author":"Salib","year":"2023","journal-title":"World J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cranston, D., Leslie, T., and Ter Haar, G. (2021). A Review of High-Intensity Focused Ultrasound in Urology. Cancers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers13225696"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000256","DOI":"10.1002\/aisy.202000256","article-title":"Light-Powered Microrobots: Challenges and Opportunities for Hard and Soft Responsive Microswimmers","volume":"3","author":"Bunea","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107380","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2022.107380","article-title":"Light-powered microrobots: Recent progress and future challenges","volume":"161","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Opt. Laser. Eng."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2301467","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202301467","article-title":"Light-Powered Self-Adaptive Mesostructured Microrobots for Simultaneous Microplastics Trapping and Fragmentation via in situ Surface Morphing","volume":"19","author":"Ullattil","year":"2023","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2402102","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202402102","article-title":"Biohybrid Micro\/Nanorobots: Pioneering the Next Generation of Medical Technology","volume":"13","author":"Zarepour","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100609","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtchem.2021.100609","article-title":"Biohybrid bacterial microswimmers with metal-organic framework exoskeletons enable cytoprotection and active drug delivery in a harsh environment","volume":"23","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mater. Today Chem."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1021\/accountsmr.4c00116","article-title":"Coated bacteria: Advanced living materials for microbial therapy","volume":"5","author":"Cao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acc. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2201042","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202201042","article-title":"Magnetic-Powered Janus Cell Robots Loaded with Oncolytic Adenovirus for Active and Targeted Virotherapy of Bladder Cancer","volume":"34","author":"Cong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5333","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201502248","article-title":"Magnetite nanostructured porous hollow helical microswimmers for targeted delivery","volume":"25","author":"Yan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaq1155","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aaq1155","article-title":"Multifunctional biohybrid magnetite microrobots for imaging-guided therapy","volume":"2","author":"Yan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58382","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.1c18597","article-title":"Multifunctional metal\u2013organic framework exoskeletons protect biohybrid sperm microrobots for active drug delivery from the surrounding threats","volume":"13","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400847","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202400847","article-title":"Engineered Microrobots for Targeted Delivery of Bacterial Outer Membrane Vesicles (OMV) in Thrombus Therapy","volume":"20","author":"Cong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2301489","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202301489","article-title":"Magnetically Powered Immunogenic Macrophage Microrobots for Targeted Multimodal Cancer Therapy","volume":"19","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtchem.2023.101560","article-title":"Oncolytic adenovirus-loaded magnetic-driven Janus tumor cell robots for active and targeted virotherapy of homologous carcinoma","volume":"30","author":"Xie","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mater. Today Chem."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5841","DOI":"10.2147\/DDDT.S490652","article-title":"Magnetic-Powered Spora Lygodii Microrobots Loaded with Doxorubicin for Active and Targeted Therapy of Bladder Cancer","volume":"18","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Drug Des. Dev. Ther."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1306","DOI":"10.1093\/ibd\/izac140","article-title":"Renal and urological disorders associated with inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"29","author":"Kumar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eururo.2023.02.027","article-title":"European Association of Urology-American Society of Clinical Oncology collaborative guideline on penile cancer: 2023 update","volume":"83","author":"Brouwer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. Urol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Knoll, N., and Gralla, O. (2024). Urologic Diseases. Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-17299-1_3131"},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"553","article-title":"Urology in the digital age: The power of telemedicine","volume":"92","author":"Lorusso","year":"2025","journal-title":"Urol. J."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1007\/s00240-025-01695-3","article-title":"An analysis of the burden of urolithiasis: Differences between the global, China, India and the United States, with projections through 2050","volume":"53","author":"Han","year":"2025","journal-title":"Urolithiasis"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102924","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2024.102924","article-title":"The global, regional, and national burden of urolithiasis in 204 countries and territories, 2000\u20132021: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021","volume":"78","author":"Awedew","year":"2024","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"1","article-title":"Management of urinary stones by experts in stone disease (ESD 2025)","volume":"97","author":"Papatsoris","year":"2025","journal-title":"Arch. Ital. Urol. Androl.\/Arch. Ital. Di Urol. Androl."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Coughlan, L.-A. (2024). Advancing Kidney Stone Management: A Technical and Commercial Review of Intraoperative Medical Device. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Galway]."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1007\/s00345-024-04949-8","article-title":"Global burden of bladder cancer mortality in 2020 and 2040 according to GLOBOCAN estimates","volume":"42","author":"Vignat","year":"2024","journal-title":"World J. Urol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1664","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-85133-9","article-title":"Supportive care needs of the family caregivers of urostomy patients: A qualitative study","volume":"15","author":"Gao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"e237086","article-title":"Outcomes of a Dietary Intervention to Reduce Bladder Cancer Recurrence and Progression in Survivors of Non\u2013Muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer","volume":"22","author":"Yeary","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Natl. Compr. Cancer Netw."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abbas, S., Soomro, N., Shafik, R., Heer, R., and Adhikari, K. (2025). Attention-enabled Explainable AI for Bladder Cancer Recurrence Prediction. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC58623.2025.11254767"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1021\/acsptsci.4c00663","article-title":"A comprehensive review of current approaches in bladder cancer treatment","volume":"8","author":"Kumbham","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Pharmacol. Transl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2938","DOI":"10.1039\/D3TB02837B","article-title":"Hydrogel: A new material for intravesical drug delivery after bladder cancer surgery","volume":"12","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2406351","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202406351","article-title":"Harnessing Natural Pollen as Sustained-Release, Mucoadhesive, and Biosafe Drug Microcapsules for Intravesical Instillation in Bladder Cancer Treatment","volume":"21","author":"Hu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"Liu, Z. (2021). PPAR\u03b3: New Insights into Its Role in Urothelial Differentiation and Regeneration. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of York]."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kolawa, A., D\u2019Souza, A., and Tulpule, V. (2023). Overview, diagnosis, and perioperative systemic therapy of upper tract urothelial carcinoma. Cancers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers15194813"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bitaraf, M., Ghafoori Yazdi, M., and Amini, E. (2023). Upper tract urothelial carcinoma (UTUC) diagnosis and risk stratification: A comprehensive review. Cancers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers15204987"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23491","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.5c04836","article-title":"Nanomedicine and Spleen-Targeting Strategies for Precision Immunomodulation: Advances, Challenges, and Future Perspectives","volume":"19","author":"Oh","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1523","DOI":"10.1002\/wsbm.1523","article-title":"Fluid mechanical modeling of the upper urinary tract","volume":"13","author":"Zheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"WIREs Mech. Dis."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, S., Jin, S., Shu, Q., and Wu, S. (2021). Strategies to get drugs across bladder penetrating barriers for improving bladder cancer therapy. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13020166"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marchenko, I.V., and Trushina, D.B. (2023). Local drug delivery in bladder cancer: Advances of nano\/micro\/macro-scale drug delivery systems. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202311.0246.v1"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2102253","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202102253","article-title":"Untethered microrobots for active drug delivery: From rational design to clinical settings","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2201051","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202201051","article-title":"Intelligent micro-\/nanorobots for cancer theragnostic","volume":"34","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2205062","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.202205062","article-title":"Fully programmable collective behavior of light-powered chemical microrobotics: pH-dependent motion behavior switch and controlled cancer cell destruction","volume":"32","author":"Dekanovsky","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2403423","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202403423","article-title":"Kidney Stone Dissolution By Tetherless, Enzyme-Loaded, Soft Magnetic Miniature Robots","volume":"14","author":"Khabbazian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10344","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jpcb.1c04682","article-title":"Atomistic assessment of cystine kidney stone behavior in a mechanical breakdown process by nanobiorobots through classical molecular dynamics simulations","volume":"125","author":"Nabiei","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Zhang, Y., Han, Y., and Gong, X. (2022). Micro\/nanorobots for medical diagnosis and disease treatment. Micromachines, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi13050648"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2400711","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202400711","article-title":"Immune cell-based microrobots for remote magnetic actuation, antitumor activity, and medical imaging","volume":"13","author":"Dogan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9934","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-54293-z","article-title":"Urease-powered nanomotor containing STING agonist for bladder cancer immunotherapy","volume":"15","author":"Choi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36366","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.5c03787","article-title":"Magnetic-Driven Hydrogel Robots Loaded with Mitomycin for Active Therapy of Bladder Cancer","volume":"17","author":"Jia","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17936","DOI":"10.1021\/jacs.5c02949","article-title":"Anti-biopassivated Reticular Micromotors for Bladder Cancer Therapy","volume":"147","author":"Sun","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2204016","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202204016","article-title":"Remotely Guided Immunobots Engaged in Anti-Tumorigenic Phenotypes for Targeted Cancer Immunotherapy","volume":"18","author":"Dogan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2402864","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202402864","article-title":"Light-Driven Green-Fabricated Artificial Intelligence-Enabled Micro\/Nanorobots for Multimodal Phototherapeutic Management of Bladder Cancer","volume":"13","author":"Hsiao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Heal. Mater."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadp3593","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.adp3593","article-title":"Imaging-guided bioresorbable acoustic hydrogel microrobots","volume":"9","author":"Han","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28342","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.5c06540","article-title":"Prolonged Release of Bacillus Calmette-Guerin by Floating Microbubbles to Enhance Intravesical Immunotherapy for Bladder Cancer","volume":"19","author":"Tang","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_124","first-page":"031001","article-title":"A Microrobot With an Attached Microforce Sensor for Transurethral Access to the Bladder Interior Wall","volume":"6","author":"Adejokun","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Eng. Sci. Med. Diagn. Ther."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2025.123551","article-title":"Magnetically controlled microgelbots with stem cells for the treatment of interstitial cystitis","volume":"325","author":"Choi","year":"2026","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1038\/s41528-025-00401-y","article-title":"A magnetic soft robotic system for intelligent bladder volume control","volume":"9","author":"Hu","year":"2025","journal-title":"npj Flex. Electron."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2408613","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202408613","article-title":"Intelligent Generic High-Throughput Oscillatory Shear Technology Fabricates Programmable Microrobots for Real-Time Visual Guidance During Embolization","volume":"21","author":"Peng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"0339","DOI":"10.34133\/research.0339","article-title":"Thermal and Magnetic Dual-Responsive Catheter-Assisted Shape Memory Microrobots for Multistage Vascular Embolization","volume":"7","author":"Peng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Research"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e202213505","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.202213505","article-title":"Self-Propelled Magnetic Dendrite-Shaped Microrobots for Photodynamic Prostate Cancer Therapy","volume":"61","author":"Peng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2106612","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.202106612","article-title":"Enzyme-Photocatalyst Tandem Microrobot Powered by Urea for Escherichia coli Biofilm Eradication","volume":"18","author":"Villa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1700058","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.201700058","article-title":"Bioadhesive Bacterial Microswimmers for Targeted Drug Delivery in the Urinary and Gastrointestinal Tracts","volume":"4","author":"Mostaghaci","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2407809121","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2407809121","article-title":"Magnetic soft microrobots for erectile dysfunction therapy","volume":"121","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadt8887","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adt8887","article-title":"Real-time color flow mapping of ultrasound microrobots","volume":"11","author":"Dillinger","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luk, E., Wong, B., Serracin, L.G., Trieu, A., Tondat, A.M., Laing, A., and Magdanz, V. (August, January 28). RENAL: Robot Enhanced Navigation and Localization. Proceedings of the 2025 International Conference on Manipulation, Automation and Robotics at Small Scales (MARSS), West Lafayette, IN, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/MARSS65887.2025.11072738"},{"key":"ref_135","unstructured":"Ceylan, H., Sinibaldi, E., Misra, S., Pasricha, P.J., and Hutmacher, D.W. (2025). Translating Milli\/Microrobots with a Value-Centered Readiness Framework. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7173","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-43650-4","article-title":"New insight about biocompatibility and biodegradability of iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles: Stereological and in vivo MRI monitor","volume":"9","author":"Nosrati","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pichler, R., Diem, G., Hackl, H., Koutn\u00edk, J., Mertens, L.S., DAndrea, D., Pradere, B., Soria, F., Mari, A., and Laukhtina, E. (2023). Intravesical BCG in bladder cancer induces innate immune responses against SARS-CoV-2. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1202157"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1346","DOI":"10.3390\/mi6091346","article-title":"Magnetic actuation based motion control for microrobots: An overview","volume":"6","author":"Xu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Micromachines"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alabay, H.H., Le, T.-A., and Ceylan, H. (2024). X-ray fluoroscopy guided localization and steering of miniature robots using virtual reality enhancement. Front. Robot. AI, 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2024.1495445"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7919","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-35646-y","article-title":"Exploiting ferrofluidic wetting for miniature soft machines","volume":"13","author":"Sun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2405095121","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2405095121","article-title":"Versatile, modular, and customizable magnetic solid-droplet systems","volume":"121","author":"Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadj4201","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adj4201","article-title":"Bioinspired self-assembled colloidal collectives drifting in three dimensions underwater","volume":"9","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadp1439","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adp1439","article-title":"Individual and collective manipulation of multifunctional bimodal droplets in three dimensions","volume":"10","author":"Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3353","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.8b09233","article-title":"3D-printed biodegradable microswimmer for theranostic cargo delivery and release","volume":"13","author":"Ceylan","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Nano"}],"container-title":["Micromachines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-666X\/17\/1\/24\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,26]],"date-time":"2025-12-26T01:02:04Z","timestamp":1766710924000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-666X\/17\/1\/24"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]]},"references-count":144,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["mi17010024"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mi17010024","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-666X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-666X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,25]]}}}