{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T11:22:44Z","timestamp":1787829764617,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787788800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52507281"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52507281"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["52507281"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52507281"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Xinqiao Hospital","award":["2024YQB048"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024YQB048"]}]},{"name":"Xinqiao Hospital","award":["2025YQB029"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025YQB029"]}]},{"award":["2024YQB048"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024YQB048"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02d217z27","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["2025YQB029"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025YQB029"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02d217z27","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Micromachines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This structured critical review examines wearable brain\u2013computer interface (BCI) systems that integrate electroencephalographic (EEG) and electromyographic (EMG) signals for post-stroke motor rehabilitation. The central engineering problem is the spatio-temporal heterogeneity between cortical and muscular signals, which limits the reliability and generalizability of conventional EEG\u2013EMG fusion. We review acquisition and synchronization methods, data-, feature-, and decision-level fusion, deep-learning architectures, wearable implementation, and clinically oriented closed-loop rehabilitation. Conventional fusion can exploit complementary information but usually treats the cross-modal relationship as fixed. By contrast, dynamic brain\u2013muscle coupling is defined here as the explicit, time-resolved estimation of interaction strength, delay, directionality, or network topology between cortical regions and target muscles. Measurable candidates include time-resolved corticomuscular coherence, phase locking, lagged dependence, information-theoretic directionality, and dynamic graph connectivity. Coupling-aware and graph-based methods are promising, but clinical translation remains constrained by artifacts, inter-subject and cross-session variability, overfitting, limited clinical datasets, interpretability, synchronization error, and embedded-computing requirements. The review therefore proposes a transparent pathway from static signal stacking toward physiologically grounded, dynamically coupled, and adaptively controlled rehabilitation systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mi17091013","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T10:58:21Z","timestamp":1787828301000},"page":"1013","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["From Signal Stacking to Dynamic Coupling: A Critical Review of Wearable EEG\u2013EMG Fusion Brain\u2013Computer Interfaces for Stroke Rehabilitation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Mengna","family":"Dai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Equipment, Chongqing Yubei People\u2019s Hospital, Chongqing 401120, China"},{"name":"School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing 400054, China"},{"name":"Department of Medical Engineering, Second Affiliated Hospital of Army Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mingke","family":"Jiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Equipment, Chongqing Yubei People\u2019s Hospital, Chongqing 401120, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6394-1455","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuheng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing 400054, China"},{"name":"Department of Medical Engineering, Second Affiliated Hospital of Army Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1177\/17474930241308142","article-title":"World Stroke Organization: Global Stroke Fact Sheet 2025","volume":"20","author":"Feigin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. 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