{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T17:25:06Z","timestamp":1787851506847,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":120,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787788800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Open Research Fund Program of the National Key Laboratory of Aerospace Chemical Power","award":["NKLACP220241B14"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NKLACP220241B14"]}]},{"name":"Xianyang Major Scientific and Technological Innovation Special Project Plan","award":["L2024-ZDKJ-ZDGG-GY-0010"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["L2024-ZDKJ-ZDGG-GY-0010"]}]},{"name":"Key Program of the National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["62433017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62433017"]}]},{"award":["62433017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62433017"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["20720230030"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20720230030"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Xiaomi Young Talents Program\/Xiaomi Foundation","award":["JCYJ20230807091401003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JCYJ20230807091401003"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Micromachines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Liquid metal electrodes (LMEs) combine metallic conductivity with fluid deformability, offering unique advantages for flexible electronics, sensing, biointerfaces, and energy devices. This review examines LMEs from an electrode-centered perspective, linking material composition and oxide-mediated interfacial behavior with fabrication, electrode architecture, performance, reliability, and application readiness. This review further highlights how electrode design and interfacial engineering govern practical electrical and mechanical performance. Emphasis is placed on gallium-based alloys and the dual role of their native oxide layer, which facilitates wetting, adhesion, and pattern stability but may also increase contact resistance and interfacial instability. Representative fabrication strategies are compared in terms of resolution, scalability, adhesion, and deformability, while electrode performance is benchmarked using conductivity or resistance, strain tolerance, cyclic reliability, electrical drift, and activation or self-healing requirements. Applications in flexible electronics, sensors, biomedical interfaces, and energy devices are discussed together with their technological maturity. No single fabrication route or electrode architecture is universally optimal, emphasizing the need for application-specific evaluation. Finally, key challenges in reproducible manufacturing, oxide regulation, contact degradation, leakage prevention, environmental durability, and lifecycle management are highlighted.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mi17091018","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T16:47:13Z","timestamp":1787849233000},"page":"1018","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Liquid Metal Electrodes: Material Properties, Interfacial Behavior, Fabrication, Performance, and Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Guirong","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Intelligent Manufacturing, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen Research Institute of Xiamen University, Xiamen University, Shenzhen 518000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gan","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Aerospace Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-4154-2885","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jian","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Intelligent Manufacturing, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen Research Institute of Xiamen University, Xiamen University, Shenzhen 518000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhichun","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Aerospace Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cheng","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Aerospace Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rui","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Aerospace Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chuntao","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Aerospace Chemical Power, Xiangyang 441022, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Aerospace Chemical Power, Xiangyang 441022, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Libo","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Intelligent Manufacturing, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China"},{"name":"Shenzhen Research Institute of Xiamen University, Xiamen University, Shenzhen 518000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24364","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.4c06607","article-title":"Three-Dimensional Electrodes of Liquid Metals for Long-Term, Wireless Cardiac Analysis and Modulation","volume":"18","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7443","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.0c20549","article-title":"Printable and Recyclable Conductive Ink Based on a Liquid Metal with Excellent Surface Wettability for Flexible Electronics","volume":"13","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Appl. 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