{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T05:07:33Z","timestamp":1788930453053,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"innovation center of radiation application","award":["KFZC2025010203"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KFZC2025010203"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Basic Research Program of Shaanxi","award":["2025JC-YBQN-822"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025JC-YBQN-822"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100021171","name":"Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2025A1515012058"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025A1515012058"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100021171","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Shenzhen Science and Technology Program","award":["KJZD20240903100506009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KJZD20240903100506009"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62090043"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62090043"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61934006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61934006"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["62090043"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62090043"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["61934006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61934006"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022YFB4401301"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFB4401301"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Micromachines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The pre-silicon reliability analysis of digital integrated circuits relies on fault-injection campaigns to characterize how single-event upsets propagate into distinct system-level outcomes. Exhaustive gate-level injection is expensive, whereas most learning-based accelerators collapse failure manifestations into a single binary label, thereby providing limited support for reliability diagnosis and follow-up analysis. We present a reliability-oriented reduced-campaign framework that predicts the monitor-defined outcome type of flip-flop (FF)-level cases omitted from a fixed circuit\/workload campaign. For each circuit, Cadence Xcelium first performs SA0\/SA1 screening and retains an FF when at least one stuck-at polarity produces a monitored failure. Within the resulting transient campaign, FeatureCoverage selects FF\u2013time cases using structural attributes and fault-free activity statistics without reading their transient-fault outcomes. HSTGNN then combines a 60-cycle FF logic-value window from the same fault-free waveform, netlist-derived FF\u2013FF topology and gate-path attributes, and module hierarchy to predict five outcomes: C0 No Error, C1 Result Error, C2 Exception Error, C3 Timeout Error, and C4 Safety Error. On the I2C, SPI, FIFO, and RISC-V benchmarks, HSTGNN achieves an 81.2\u201399.0% macro F1 on more than 38,000 held-out FF\u2013time cases under a 70% labeled fault-injection budget comprising 60% training and 10% validation cases. FeatureCoverage also yields the highest macro F1 across all four label-free split strategies in every evaluated circuit. The proposed framework predicts the remaining 30% of cases while preserving reliability-relevant outcome semantics that binary acceleration discards. The evidence is limited to within-campaign prediction and supports, rather than replaces, quantitative reliability and diagnostic-coverage analysis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mi17091059","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]],"date-time":"2026-09-04T16:07:32Z","timestamp":1788538052000},"page":"1059","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Reliability-Oriented Multi-Class Fault-Injection Acceleration for Digital Integrated Circuits via Heterogeneous Spatio-Temporal Graph Learning"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Jiaqi","family":"Lu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangzhou Institute of Technology, Xidian University, Guangzhou 510000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3827-8820","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Changqing","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangzhou Institute of Technology, Xidian University, Guangzhou 510000, China"},{"name":"Faculty of Integrated Circuit, Xidian University, Xi\u2019an 710126, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Huixin","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Microelectronics Technology Institute, Beijing 100076, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guoxing","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Information Center of State Administration of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense, Beijing 100048, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Liang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Microelectronics Technology Institute, Beijing 100076, China"},{"name":"National Innovation Center of Radiation Application, Beijing 100076, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinfang","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangzhou Institute of Technology, Xidian University, Guangzhou 510000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yi","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Integrated Circuit, Xidian University, Xi\u2019an 710126, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9745-5404","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yintang","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Integrated Circuit, Xidian University, Xi\u2019an 710126, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2018). 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