{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T21:08:35Z","timestamp":1792789715790,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":126,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789948800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Korea Institute for Advancement of Technology","id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/015w1qa96","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/015w1qa96","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy","award":["P0026243"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P0026243"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/008nkqk13","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["P0026243"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P0026243"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/008nkqk13","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","award":["RS-2026-25599908"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2026-25599908"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/013aysd81","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["RS-2026-25599908"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2026-25599908"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/013aysd81","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Micromachines"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The rapid expansion of autonomous microsystems, implantable sensors, wireless sensor nodes, Internet-of-Things devices, distributed electronics, and heterogeneous system-on-chip platforms has intensified the demand for compact electrochemical energy-storage systems that can be integrated directly with microfabricated devices. Among the various negative electrode materials, silicon is particularly attractive for miniaturized lithium-ion batteries because of its high theoretical lithium-storage capacity, abundance, compatibility with mature semiconductor processing, and direct availability as both an active material and a structural platform. However, the practical implementation of silicon anodes in on-chip and miniaturized batteries remains difficult because lithiation-induced volume expansion, fracture, unstable solid-electrolyte interphase formation, loss of electrical contact, and process-integration constraints become more severe as the battery footprint is reduced to the microscale. In contrast to conventional slurry-cast silicon electrodes, silicon anodes for microbatteries can exploit microfabrication strategies such as thin-film deposition, photolithography, deep reactive ion etching, metal-assisted chemical etching, nanoimprint lithography, laser patterning, template-assisted growth, atomic layer deposition, and wafer-level encapsulation. These methods enable deterministic control over electrode geometry, areal loading, porosity, current-collector contact, diffusion length, mechanical compliance, interfacial chemistry, and compatibility with complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor and microelectromechanical-system platforms. This review summarizes the recent progress in microfabrication strategies for silicon anodes in on-chip and miniaturized batteries, emphasizing the relationship between the process route, electrode architecture, mechanical stability, electrochemical performance, and manufacturability.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/mi17091103","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T14:12:09Z","timestamp":1789999929000},"page":"1103","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Microfabrication Strategies for Silicon Anodes in On-Chip and Miniaturized Batteries"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-0913-4896","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Heonsu","family":"Park","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Inha University, 100 Inha-ro, Michuhol-gu, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Churl Seung","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ICT Nano Convergence Technology Research Center, Korea Electronics Technology Institute (KETI), Bundang-gu, Seongnam-si 13509, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joonho","family":"Bae","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Semiconductor Science, Gachon University, Seongnam-si 13120, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Department of Semiconductor Engineering, Gachon University, Seongnam-si 13120, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1007\/s40820-024-01625-9","article-title":"Photolithographic microfabrication of microbatteries for on-chip energy storage","volume":"17","author":"Ma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nano-Micro Lett."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1038\/s43246-024-00459-7","article-title":"Advances in 3D silicon-based lithium-ion microbatteries","volume":"5","author":"Refino","year":"2024","journal-title":"Commun. Mater."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4237","DOI":"10.1039\/D2NA00566B","article-title":"Miniaturized lithium-ion batteries for on-chip energy storage","volume":"4","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nanoscale Adv."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19779","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-99173-4","article-title":"Versatilely tuned vertical silicon nanowire arrays by cryogenic reactive ion etching as a lithium-ion battery anode","volume":"11","author":"Refino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6573","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1423889112","article-title":"Holographic patterning of high-performance on-chip 3D lithium-ion microbatteries","volume":"112","author":"Ning","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2015.03.133","article-title":"Latest advances in the manufacturing of 3D rechargeable lithium microbatteries","volume":"286","author":"Ferrari","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1002\/aenm.201000002","article-title":"All-solid-state lithium-ion microbatteries: A review of various three-dimensional concepts","volume":"1","author":"Oudenhoven","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Energy Mater."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4564","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200702398","article-title":"3-D integrated all-solid-state rechargeable batteries","volume":"19","author":"Notten","year":"2007","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.200701245","article-title":"High-energy-density all-solid-state batteries: A challenging concept toward 3D integration","volume":"18","author":"Baggetto","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1038\/35104644","article-title":"Issues and challenges facing rechargeable lithium batteries","volume":"414","author":"Tarascon","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1038\/451652a","article-title":"Building better batteries","volume":"451","author":"Armand","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3703","DOI":"10.1039\/b926044g","article-title":"3D negative electrode stacks for integrated all-solid-state lithium-ion microbatteries","volume":"20","author":"Baggetto","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1164","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-4095(20020816)14:16<1164::AID-ADMA1164>3.0.CO;2-E","article-title":"Synthesis of large-area silicon nanowire arrays via self-assembling nanoelectrochemistry","volume":"14","author":"Peng","year":"2002","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"033105","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2929373","article-title":"Silicon nanowires for rechargeable lithium-ion battery anodes","volume":"93","author":"Peng","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3550","DOI":"10.1021\/nl9017594","article-title":"Single crystalline mesoporous silicon nanowires","volume":"9","author":"Hochbaum","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5062","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2010.02.013","article-title":"In situ measurements of stress evolution in silicon thin films during electrochemical lithiation and delithiation","volume":"195","author":"Sethuraman","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2018.12.011","article-title":"A review on modeling of electro-chemo-mechanics in lithium-ion batteries","volume":"413","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2012.12.004","article-title":"Designing the 3D-microbattery geometry using the level-set method","volume":"244","author":"Zadin","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-018-05752-3","article-title":"Ten years left to redesign lithium-ion batteries","volume":"559","author":"Turcheniuk","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1038\/518042a","article-title":"Three-dimensional printed electronics","volume":"518","author":"Lewis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104009","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/20\/10\/104009","article-title":"Direct write dispenser printing of a zinc microbattery with an ionic liquid gel electrolyte","volume":"20","author":"Ho","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.materresbull.2007.08.031","article-title":"Issue and challenges facing rechargeable thin film lithium batteries","volume":"43","author":"Patil","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mater. Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2013.11.103","article-title":"Review on recent progress of nanostructured anode materials for Li-ion batteries","volume":"257","author":"Goriparti","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nantod.2012.08.004","article-title":"Designing nanostructured Si anodes for high energy lithium ion batteries","volume":"7","author":"Wu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nano Today"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1209150","article-title":"A major constituent of brown algae for use in high-capacity Li-ion batteries","volume":"334","author":"Kovalenko","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3315","DOI":"10.1021\/nl3014814","article-title":"A yolk-shell design for stabilized and scalable Li-ion battery alloy anodes","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2012.35","article-title":"Stable cycling of double-walled silicon nanotube battery anodes through solid-electrolyte interphase control","volume":"7","author":"Wu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4463","DOI":"10.1021\/cr020740l","article-title":"Three-dimensional battery architectures","volume":"104","author":"Long","year":"2004","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9876","DOI":"10.1039\/c0jm04396f","article-title":"3D lithium ion batteries\u2014From fundamentals to fabrication","volume":"21","author":"Roberts","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22440","DOI":"10.1039\/D0RA03161E","article-title":"Towards 3D-lithium ion microbatteries based on silicon\/graphite blend anodes using a dispenser printing technique","volume":"10","author":"Drews","year":"2020","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102709","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matt.2026.102709","article-title":"CMOS-compatible lithium-ion batteries for distributed on-chip power architecture","volume":"9","author":"Gou","year":"2026","journal-title":"Matter"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1732","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms2747","article-title":"High-power lithium ion microbatteries from interdigitated three-dimensional bicontinuous nanoporous electrodes","volume":"4","author":"Pikul","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4539","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201301036","article-title":"3D printing of interdigitated Li-ion microbattery architectures","volume":"25","author":"Sun","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A93","DOI":"10.1149\/1.1652421","article-title":"Structural changes in silicon anodes during lithium insertion\/extraction","volume":"7","author":"Obrovac","year":"2004","journal-title":"Electrochem. Solid-State Lett."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2007.411","article-title":"High-performance lithium battery anodes using silicon nanowires","volume":"3","author":"Chan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1021\/nl8036323","article-title":"Crystalline-amorphous core-shell silicon nanowires for high-capacity and high-current battery electrodes","volume":"9","author":"Cui","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A137","DOI":"10.1149\/1.1388178","article-title":"Colossal reversible volume changes in lithium alloys","volume":"4","author":"Beaulieu","year":"2001","journal-title":"Electrochem. Solid-State Lett."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2949","DOI":"10.1021\/nl201470j","article-title":"Interconnected silicon hollow nanospheres for lithium-ion battery anodes with long cycle life","volume":"11","author":"Yao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2014.6","article-title":"A pomegranate-inspired nanoscale design for large-volume-change lithium battery anodes","volume":"9","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1300882","DOI":"10.1002\/aenm.201300882","article-title":"Silicon-based nanomaterials for lithium-ion batteries: A review","volume":"4","author":"Su","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Energy Mater."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1039\/C5NR05116A","article-title":"Silicon as a potential anode material for Li-ion batteries: Where size, geometry and structure matter","volume":"8","author":"Ashuri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4966","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201301795","article-title":"25th Anniversary Article: Understanding the lithiation of silicon and other alloying anodes for lithium-ion batteries","volume":"25","author":"McDowell","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1522","DOI":"10.1021\/nn204476h","article-title":"Size-dependent fracture of silicon nanoparticles during lithiation","volume":"6","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1021\/nl3044508","article-title":"In situ TEM of two-phase lithiation of amorphous silicon nanospheres","volume":"13","author":"McDowell","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1717","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmps.2011.06.003","article-title":"Size-dependent fracture of Si nanowire battery anodes","volume":"59","author":"Ryu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mech. Phys. Solids"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A38","DOI":"10.1149\/2.048201jes","article-title":"Stress mitigation during the lithiation of patterned amorphous Si islands","volume":"159","author":"Soni","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5039","DOI":"10.1021\/nl302841y","article-title":"Kinetics of initial lithiation of crystalline silicon electrodes of lithium-ion batteries","volume":"12","author":"Pharr","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4938","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201102568","article-title":"Alumina-coated patterned amorphous silicon as the anode for a lithium-ion battery with high coulombic efficiency","volume":"23","author":"He","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3911","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201101915","article-title":"Ultrathin multifunctional oxide coatings for lithium ion batteries","volume":"23","author":"Xiao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2172","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200903951","article-title":"Ultrathin direct atomic layer deposition on composite electrodes for highly durable and safe Li-ion batteries","volume":"22","author":"Jung","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3589","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201200397","article-title":"Emerging applications of atomic layer deposition for lithium-ion battery studies","volume":"24","author":"Meng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat2725","article-title":"High-performance lithium-ion anodes using a hierarchical bottom-up approach","volume":"9","author":"Magasinski","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8548","DOI":"10.1021\/ja1031997","article-title":"Deformations in Si-Li anodes upon electrochemical alloying in nano-confined space","volume":"132","author":"Hertzberg","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2010.07.020","article-title":"A review of the electrochemical performance of alloy anodes for lithium-ion batteries","volume":"196","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16013","DOI":"10.1038\/natrevmats.2016.13","article-title":"Promise and reality of post-lithium-ion batteries with high energy densities","volume":"1","author":"Choi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mater."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"021411","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0166284","article-title":"Deep-reactive ion etching of silicon nanowire arrays at cryogenic temperatures","volume":"11","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1186\/1556-276X-9-613","article-title":"CMOS-compatible metal-stabilized nanostructured Si as anodes for lithium-ion microbatteries","volume":"9","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nanoscale Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-2738(92)90442-R","article-title":"Electrical properties of amorphous lithium electrolyte thin films","volume":"53\u201356","author":"Bates","year":"1992","journal-title":"Solid State Ion."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-2738(00)00327-1","article-title":"Thin-film lithium and lithium-ion batteries","volume":"135","author":"Bates","year":"2000","journal-title":"Solid State Ion."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mseb.2004.05.045","article-title":"Solid-state thin-film rechargeable batteries","volume":"116","author":"Dudney","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. B"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1149\/1.1393226","article-title":"Lithium-free thin-film battery with in situ plated Li anode","volume":"147","author":"Neudecker","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3243","DOI":"10.1039\/c1ee01598b","article-title":"Challenges in the development of advanced Li-ion batteries: A review","volume":"4","author":"Etacheri","year":"2011","journal-title":"Energy Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1021\/ja3091438","article-title":"The Li-ion rechargeable battery: A perspective","volume":"135","author":"Goodenough","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4593","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200901710","article-title":"Research on advanced materials for Li-ion batteries","volume":"21","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3844","DOI":"10.1021\/nl902058c","article-title":"Silicon nanotube battery anodes","volume":"9","author":"Park","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1021\/nl0727157","article-title":"High capacity Li ion battery anodes using Ge nanowires","volume":"8","author":"Chan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5528","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2008.02.114","article-title":"Silicon nanowires as negative electrode for lithium-ion microbatteries","volume":"53","author":"Eude","year":"2008","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"045503","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.107.045503","article-title":"Real-time measurement of stress and damage evolution during initial lithiation of crystalline silicon","volume":"107","author":"Chon","year":"2011","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A194","DOI":"10.1149\/1.1596917","article-title":"Highly reversible lithium storage in nanostructured silicon","volume":"6","author":"Graetz","year":"2003","journal-title":"Electrochem. Solid-State Lett."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2010.06.080","article-title":"Continuum and atomistic models of strongly coupled diffusion, stress, and solute concentration","volume":"196","author":"Haftbaradaran","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S226","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1551-2916.2011.04432.x","article-title":"Large plastic deformation in high-capacity lithium-ion batteries caused by charge and discharge","volume":"94","author":"Zhao","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Am. Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A238","DOI":"10.1149\/2.020203jes","article-title":"Concurrent reaction and plasticity during initial lithiation of crystalline silicon in lithium-ion batteries","volume":"159","author":"Zhao","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A1457","DOI":"10.1149\/1.1613668","article-title":"Reaction of Li with alloy thin films studied by in situ AFM","volume":"150","author":"Beaulieu","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A838","DOI":"10.1149\/1.1739217","article-title":"In situ XRD and electrochemical study of the reaction of lithium with amorphous silicon","volume":"151","author":"Hatchard","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cossms.2012.05.002","article-title":"High power rechargeable batteries","volume":"16","author":"Braun","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joule.2018.04.002","article-title":"High areal energy density 3D lithium-ion microbatteries","volume":"2","author":"Hur","year":"2018","journal-title":"Joule"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3740","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemmater.7b00805","article-title":"Nanoscale solid state batteries enabled by thermal atomic layer deposition of a lithium polyphosphazene solid electrolyte","volume":"29","author":"Pearse","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnsc.2012.11.014","article-title":"Nanostructured LiMn2O4 and their composites as high-performance cathodes for lithium-ion batteries","volume":"22","author":"Xia","year":"2012","journal-title":"Prog. Nat. Sci. Mater. Int."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Julien, C.M., and Mauger, A. (2019). Pulsed laser deposited films for microbatteries. Coatings, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/coatings9060386"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137840","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsf.2020.137840","article-title":"Deposition and performance of all-solid-state thin-film lithium-ion batteries composed of amorphous Si\/LiPON\/VO-LiPO multilayers","volume":"697","author":"Kanazawa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Thin Solid Films"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2415693122","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2415693122","article-title":"Integratable all-solid-state thin-film microbatteries","volume":"122","author":"Ke","year":"2025","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1557\/mrs.2011.156","article-title":"Three-dimensional electrodes and battery architectures","volume":"36","author":"Arthur","year":"2011","journal-title":"MRS Bull."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E28","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200903328","article-title":"Advanced materials for energy storage","volume":"22","author":"Liu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1210","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1249625","article-title":"Where do batteries end and supercapacitors begin?","volume":"343","author":"Simon","year":"2014","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100405","DOI":"10.1002\/admt.202100405","article-title":"A lithium-silicon microbattery with anode and housing directly made from semiconductor grade monocrystalline Si","volume":"7","author":"Sternad","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Technol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32385","DOI":"10.1021\/acsami.6b12244","article-title":"Fabrication, testing, and simulation of all-solid-state three-dimensional Li-ion batteries","volume":"8","author":"Talin","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1601402","DOI":"10.1002\/aenm.201601402","article-title":"Atomic layer deposition of functional layers for on chip 3D Li-ion all solid state microbattery","volume":"7","author":"Eustache","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Energy Mater."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A198","DOI":"10.1149\/1.1596918","article-title":"High capacity, reversible silicon thin-film anodes for lithium-ion batteries","volume":"6","author":"Maranchi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Electrochem. Solid-State Lett."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A1246","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2184753","article-title":"Interfacial properties of the a-Si\/Cu:active-inactive thin-film anode system for lithium-ion batteries","volume":"153","author":"Maranchi","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2004.03.014","article-title":"A thin film silicon anode for Li-ion batteries having a very large specific capacity and long cycle life","volume":"136","author":"Ohara","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Laermer, F., and Schilp, A. (1996). Method of Anisotropically Etching Silicon. (5,501,893), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/5\/2\/015","article-title":"The black silicon method: A universal method for determining the parameter setting of a fluorine-based reactive ion etcher in deep silicon trench etching with profile control","volume":"5","author":"Jansen","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3395","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/38\/18\/012","article-title":"Silicon columnar microstructures induced by an SF6\/O2 plasma","volume":"38","author":"Dussart","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Phys. D Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2022.231269","article-title":"Self-standing mesoporous Si films as anodes for lithium-ion microbatteries","volume":"529","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2769","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3727\/34\/18\/309","article-title":"Silicon micromachining using a high-density plasma source","volume":"34","author":"McAuley","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Phys. D Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1038\/s41563-023-01792-x","article-title":"Chemo-mechanical failure mechanisms of the silicon anode in solid-state batteries","volume":"23","author":"Huo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17051","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-44070-1","article-title":"Nanoporous silicon fiber networks in a composite anode for all-solid-state batteries with superior cycling performance","volume":"13","author":"Yamamoto","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1038\/s42004-018-0026-y","article-title":"Porous amorphous silicon film anodes for high-capacity and stable all-solid-state lithium batteries","volume":"1","author":"Sakabe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Commun. Chem."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-56366-z","article-title":"Silicon-based all-solid-state batteries operating free from external pressure","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2009.11.048","article-title":"Lithium batteries: Status, prospects and future","volume":"195","author":"Scrosati","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2006.09.084","article-title":"Nano- and bulk-silicon-based insertion anodes for lithium-ion secondary cells","volume":"163","author":"Kasavajjula","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11444","DOI":"10.1021\/cr500207g","article-title":"Alloy negative electrodes for Li-ion batteries","volume":"114","author":"Obrovac","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2008.03.009","article-title":"Metal-assisted chemical etching of silicon in HF-H2O2","volume":"53","author":"Chartier","year":"2008","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201001784","article-title":"Metal-assisted chemical etching of silicon: A review","volume":"23","author":"Huang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2572","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1319191","article-title":"Metal-assisted chemical etching in HF\/H2O2 produces porous silicon","volume":"77","author":"Li","year":"2000","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1384","DOI":"10.1039\/C0CC03158E","article-title":"Heterogeneous nanostructured electrode materials for electrochemical energy storage","volume":"47","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2003.07.019","article-title":"Electrochemical performance of lithium ion battery, nano-silicon-based, disordered carbon composite anodes with different microstructures","volume":"125","author":"Zhang","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3370","DOI":"10.1021\/nl901670t","article-title":"Carbon-silicon core-shell nanowires as high capacity electrode for lithium ion batteries","volume":"9","author":"Cui","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1574","DOI":"10.1021\/acsaelm.3c01565","article-title":"Conformal High-Aspect-Ratio Solid Electrolyte Thin Films for Li-Ion Batteries by Atomic Layer Deposition","volume":"6","author":"Madadi","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Electron. Mater."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15011","DOI":"10.1039\/D4CC05458J","article-title":"Directing SEI Formation on Si-Based Electrodes Using Atomic Layer Deposition","volume":"60","author":"Das","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1021\/nl1030198","article-title":"Ultrathin coatings on nano-LiCoO2 for Li-ion vehicular applications","volume":"11","author":"Scott","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1596","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201304714","article-title":"Reversible high-capacity Si nanocomposite anodes for lithium-ion batteries enabled by molecular layer deposition","volume":"26","author":"Piper","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2012.04.105","article-title":"Shape evolution of patterned amorphous and polycrystalline silicon microarray thin film electrodes caused by lithium insertion and extraction","volume":"216","author":"He","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-04105-x","article-title":"High Performance Silicon Electrode Enabled by Titanicone Coating","volume":"12","author":"Settipani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-7753(00)00427-4","article-title":"Addition of a thin-film inorganic solid electrolyte (Lipon) as a protective film in lithium batteries with a liquid electrolyte","volume":"89","author":"Dudney","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/S1359-0286(99)00052-2","article-title":"Solid state thin-film lithium battery systems","volume":"4","author":"Dudney","year":"1999","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109567","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2023.109567","article-title":"Fabrication of 3D silicon anode by inkjet printing: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"75","author":"Sztymela","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35051","DOI":"10.1039\/D1RA06643A","article-title":"3D printed silicon-few layer graphene anode for advanced Li-ion batteries","volume":"11","author":"Beydaghi","year":"2021","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1859","DOI":"10.1039\/D4SU00808A","article-title":"Recycling silicon photovoltaic cells into silicon anodes for Li-ion batteries using 3D printing","volume":"3","author":"Mottaghi","year":"2025","journal-title":"RSC Sustain."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2991","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-47352-y","article-title":"Overcoming low initial coulombic efficiencies of Si anodes through prelithiation in all-solid-state batteries","volume":"15","author":"Ham","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, S.M., Salunkhe, T.T., Yoo, J.H., Kim, I.H., and Kim, I.T. (2024). Artificial Graphite-Based Silicon Composite Anodes for Lithium-Ion Batteries. Nanomaterials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano14231953"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7956","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-63257-w","article-title":"A salt-free medium facilitating electrode prelithiation towards fast-charging and high-energy lithium-ion batteries","volume":"16","author":"Ou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4158","DOI":"10.1021\/nl401776d","article-title":"Prelithiation of silicon-carbon nanotube anodes for lithium ion batteries by stabilized lithium metal powder","volume":"13","author":"Forney","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holtstiege, F., B\u00e4rmann, P., N\u00f6lle, R., Winter, M., and Placke, T. (2018). Pre-lithiation strategies for rechargeable energy storage technologies: Concepts, promises and challenges. Batteries, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/batteries4010004"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8372","DOI":"10.1021\/jacs.5b04526","article-title":"Artificial solid electrolyte interphase-protected LixSi nanoparticles: An efficient and stable prelithiation reagent for lithium-ion batteries","volume":"137","author":"Zhao","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1835","DOI":"10.1007\/s10008-010-1045-5","article-title":"An electrochemical and structural investigation of silicon nanowires as negative electrode for Li-ion batteries","volume":"14","author":"Ung","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Solid State Electrochem."}],"container-title":["Micromachines"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-666X\/17\/9\/1103\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T04:51:38Z","timestamp":1790139098000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-666X\/17\/9\/1103"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]]},"references-count":126,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["mi17091103"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mi17091103","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-666X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-666X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]]}}}