{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T10:36:08Z","timestamp":1782210968395,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,6]],"date-time":"2022-03-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1646524800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus Research and Publication Fund Com-mittee","award":["#2660-457522"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#2660-457522"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This cross-sectional study determined the serovars, antimicrobial resistance genes, and virulence factors of Salmonella isolated from hatcheries, broiler farms, processing plants, and retail outlets in Trinidad and Tobago. Salmonella in silico serotyping detected 23 different serovars where Kentucky 20.5% (30\/146), Javiana 19.2% (28\/146), Infantis 13.7% (20\/146), and Albany 8.9% (13\/146) were the predominant serovars. There was a 76.0% (111\/146) agreement between serotyping results using traditional conventional methods and whole-genome sequencing (WGS) in in silico analysis. In silico identification of antimicrobial resistance genes conferring resistance to aminoglycosides, cephalosporins, peptides, sulfonamides, and antiseptics were detected. Multidrug resistance (MDR) was detected in 6.8% (10\/146) of the isolates of which 100% originated from broiler farms. Overall, virulence factors associated with secretion systems and fimbrial adherence determinants accounted for 69.3% (3091\/4463), and 29.2% (1302\/4463) counts, respectively. Ten of 20 isolates of serovar Infantis (50.0%) showed MDR and contained the blaCTX-M-65 gene. This is the first molecular characterization of Salmonella isolates detected along the entire broiler production continuum in the Caribbean region using WGS. The availability of these genomes will help future source tracking during epidemiological investigations associated with Salmonella foodborne outbreaks in the region and worldwide.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10030570","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,6]],"date-time":"2022-03-06T20:40:02Z","timestamp":1646599202000},"page":"570","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Molecular Characterization of Salmonella Detected along the Broiler Production Chain in Trinidad and Tobago"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6855-1410","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anisa Sarah","family":"Khan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 999183, Trinidad and Tobago"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0619-0058","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rian Ewald","family":"Pierneef","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Agricultural Research Council-Biotechnology Platform, Onderstepoort, 100 Old Soutpan Road, Pretoria 0110, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4568-0022","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Narjol","family":"Gonzalez-Escalona","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Microbiology, Office of Regulatory Science, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD 20740, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meghan","family":"Maguire","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Microbiology, Office of Regulatory Science, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD 20740, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cong","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Animal and Food Microbiology, Office of Research, Center for Veterinary Medicine, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD 20708, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gregory H.","family":"Tyson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Animal and Food Microbiology, Office of Research, Center for Veterinary Medicine, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD 20708, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sherry","family":"Ayers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Animal and Food Microbiology, Office of Research, Center for Veterinary Medicine, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Laurel, MD 20708, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5910-1429","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karla","family":"Georges","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 999183, Trinidad and Tobago"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Woubit","family":"Abebe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Tuskegee University, 201 Frederick D Patterson Dr, Tuskegee, AL 36088, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9470-9421","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abiodun Adewale","family":"Adesiyun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine 999183, Trinidad and Tobago"},{"name":"Department of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Onderstepoort, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Pretoria 0110, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Ulaya, D.W. (2014). Determination of virulence factors in Salmonella isolates of human, poultry, and dog origin in Lusaka district, Zambia. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Zambia]."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2020, October 03). Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/salmonella\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Food Safety Authority, and European Centre for Disease Prevention Control (2019). The European Union One Health 2018 zoonoses report. EFSA J., 17, e05926.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2019.5926"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"125","article-title":"Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance pattern of Salmonella in animal feed produced in Namibia","volume":"48","author":"Shilangale","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Ital."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E149","DOI":"10.2527\/jas.2007-0464","article-title":"Salmonella challenges: Prevalence in swine and poultry and potential pathogenicity of such isolates","volume":"86","author":"Foley","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-020-0697-x","article-title":"Antimicrobial use and resistance in food-producing animals and the environment: An African perspective","volume":"9","author":"Kimera","year":"2020","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bsheal.2020.09.004","article-title":"Use of antimicrobials in food animals and impact of transmission of antimicrobial resistance on humans","volume":"3","author":"Ma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biosaf. Health"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO) (2019). Critically Important Antimicrobials for Human Medicine, World Health Organisation."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciw475","article-title":"World Health Organization ranking of antimicrobials according to their importance in human medicine: A critical step for developing risk management strategies to control antimicrobial resistance from food animal production","volume":"63","author":"Collignon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.48.4.1295-1299.2004","article-title":"Emerging plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance associated with the qnr gene in Klebsiella pneumoniae clinical isolates in the United States","volume":"48","author":"Wang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.12830","article-title":"Mechanisms of drug resistance: Quinolone resistance","volume":"1354","author":"Hooper","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. NY Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-7915.2008.00063.x","article-title":"Mechanism of action of and resistance to quinolones","volume":"2","author":"Madurga","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microb. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.70.1.1-7.2004","article-title":"Characterization of multiple-antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella serovars isolated from retail meats","volume":"70","author":"Chen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dki365","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of resistance in multidrug-resistant serovars of Salmonella enterica isolated from foods in Germany","volume":"56","author":"Miko","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(15)00424-7","article-title":"Emergence of plasmid-mediated colistin resistance mechanism mcr-1 in animals and human beings in China: A microbiological and molecular biological study","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00853-19","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00853-19","article-title":"Identification of novel mobilized colistin resistance gene mcr-9 in a multidrug-resistant, colistin-susceptible Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium isolate","volume":"10","author":"Carroll","year":"2019","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.00080","article-title":"Development of a novel mcr-6 to mcr-9 multiplex PCR and assessment of mcr-1 to mcr-9 occurrence in colistin-resistant Salmonella enterica isolates from environment, feed, animals and food (2011\u20132018) in Germany","volume":"11","author":"Borowiak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2018.23.6.17-00672","article-title":"Multiplex PCR for detection of plasmid-mediated colistin resistance determinants, mcr-1, mcr-2, mcr-3, mcr-4, and mcr-5 for surveillance purposes","volume":"23","author":"Rebelo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-017-0171-6","article-title":"Genetic markers associated with resistance to beta-lactam and quinolone antimicrobials in non-typhoidal Salmonella isolates from humans and animals in central Ethiopia","volume":"6","author":"Eguale","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2017.0127","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance in Salmonella from retail foods of animal origin and its association with disinfectant and heavy metal resistance","volume":"24","author":"Deng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microb. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2017.0329","article-title":"Genotypic resistance to quinolone and tetracycline in Salmonella Dublin strains isolated from humans and animals in Brazil","volume":"25","author":"Vilela","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microb. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.4315\/JFP-21-236","article-title":"Occurrence, risk factors, serotypes and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella strains isolated from imported fertile hatching eggs, hatcheries, and broiler farms in Trinidad and Tobago","volume":"85","author":"Khan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, A.S., Georges, K., Rahaman, S., Abebe, W., and Adesiyun, A.A. (2021). Characterization of Salmonella isolates recovered from stages of the processing lines at four broiler processing plants in Trinidad and Tobago. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9051048"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1880","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-18-223","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella isolates recovered from chickens sold at retail outlets in Trinidad","volume":"81","author":"Khan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, A.S., Georges, K., Rahaman, S., Abdela, W., and Adesiyun, A.A. (2018). Prevalence and serotypes of Salmonella spp. on chickens sold at retail outlets in Trinidad. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0202108"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1096","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-69.5.1096","article-title":"Occurrence of selected foodborne pathogens on poultry and poultry giblets from small retail processing operations in Trinidad","volume":"69","author":"Rodrigo","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"1","article-title":"Manual of food quality control. 4. Rev. 1. Microbiological analysis. Food and Drug Administration","volume":"14","author":"Andrews","year":"1992","journal-title":"FAO Food Nutr. Pap."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1089\/cmb.2012.0021","article-title":"SPAdes: A new genome assembly algorithm and its applications to single-cell sequencing","volume":"19","author":"Bankevich","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Comput. Biol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yoshida, C.E., Kruczkiewicz, P., Laing, C.R., Lingohr, E.J., Gannon, V.P., Nash, J.H., and Taboada, E.N. (2016). The Salmonella in silico typing resource (SISTR): An open web-accessible tool for rapidly typing and subtyping draft Salmonella genome assemblies. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0147101"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hyatt, D., Chen, G.L., Locascio, P.F., Land, M.L., Larimer, F.W., and Hauser, L.J. (2010). Prodigal: Prokaryotic gene recognition and translation initiation site identification. BMC Bioinform., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2105-11-119"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D687","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gky1080","article-title":"VFDB 2019: A comparative pathogenomic platform with an interactive web interface","volume":"47","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"D517","article-title":"CARD 2020: Antibiotic resistome surveillance with the comprehensive antibiotic resistance database","volume":"48","author":"Alcock","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nucleic. Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2015.05.036","article-title":"Close genetic relationship between Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis isolated from patients with diarrhoea and poultry in the Republic of Korea","volume":"21","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1677","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.13110","article-title":"Virulence-associated genes, antimicrobial resistance and molecular typing of Salmonella Typhimurium strains isolated from swine from 2000 to 2012 in Brazil","volume":"120","author":"Almeida","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.02.023","article-title":"Comparative analysis of core genome MLST and SNP typing within a European Salmonella serovar Enteritidis outbreak","volume":"274","author":"Pearce","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Food. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1482","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.01482","article-title":"Interpreting whole-genome sequence analyses of foodborne bacteria for regulatory applications and outbreak investigations","volume":"9","author":"Pightling","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resmic.2009.10.002","article-title":"Supplement 2003\u20132007 (No. 47) to the White-Kauffmann-Le Minor scheme","volume":"161","author":"Guibourdenche","year":"2010","journal-title":"Res. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1647","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.01647","article-title":"O-serotype conversion in Salmonella Typhimurium induces protective immune responses against invasive non-typhoidal Salmonella infections","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chui, L., Ferrato, C., Li, V., and Christianson, S. (2021). Comparison of molecular and in silico Salmonella serotyping for Salmonella surveillance. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9050955"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1044","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.01044","article-title":"The validation and implications of using whole-genome sequencing as a replacement for traditional serotyping for a National Salmonella reference laboratory","volume":"8","author":"Yachison","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elkenany, R., Elsayed, M.M., Zakaria, A.I., El-sayed, S.A.-E.-S., and Rizk, M.A. (2019). Antimicrobial resistance profiles and virulence genotyping of Salmonella enterica serovars recovered from broiler chickens and chicken carcasses in Egypt. BMC Vet. Res., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-019-1867-z"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duc, V.M., Nakamoto, Y., Fujiwara, A., Toyofuku, H., Obi, T., and Chuma, T. (2019). Prevalence of Salmonella in broiler chickens in Kagoshima, Japan in 2009 to 2012 and the relationship between serovars changing and antimicrobial resistance. BMC Vet. Res., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-019-1836-6"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Wang, H., Li, T., Liu, F., Cheng, Y., Guo, X., Wen, G., Luo, Q., Shao, H., and Pan, Z. (2020). Characterization of Salmonella spp. isolated from chickens in Central China. BMC Vet. Res., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-020-02513-1"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramirez-Hernandez, A., Carrascal-Camacho, A.K., Varon-Garcia, A., Brashears, M.M., and Sanchez-Plata, M.X. (2021). Genotypic characterization of antimicrobial resistant Salmonella spp. strains from three poultry processing plants in Colombia. Foods, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods10030491"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2671","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00754-11","article-title":"Emergence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (CTX-M-15 and CTX-M-14)-producing nontyphoid Salmonella with reduced susceptibility to ciprofloxacin among food animals and humans in Korea","volume":"49","author":"Tamang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.13615","article-title":"Phenotypic and genotypic profile of clinical and animal multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica isolates from Mexico","volume":"124","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"29","article-title":"Characteristics of virulence, resistance and genetic diversity of strains of Salmonella Infantis isolated from broiler chicken in Brazil","volume":"40","author":"Melo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Braz. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2056","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.47.6.2056-2058.2003","article-title":"Detection of CMY-2, CTX-M-14, and SHV-12 beta-lactamases in Escherichia coli fecal-sample isolates from healthy chickens","volume":"47","author":"Brinas","year":"2003","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2777","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.44.10.2777-2783.2000","article-title":"Animal and human multidrug-resistant, cephalosporin-resistant Salmonella isolates expressing a plasmid-mediated CMY-2 AmpC beta-lactamase","volume":"44","author":"Winokur","year":"2000","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.12351","article-title":"A unique megaplasmid contributes to stress tolerance and pathogenicity of an emergent Salmonella enterica serovar Infantis strain","volume":"16","author":"Aviv","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2019.108497","article-title":"Mega-plasmid found worldwide confers multiple antimicrobial resistance in Salmonella Infantis of broiler origin in Russia","volume":"319","author":"Bogomazova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Franco, A., Leekitcharoenphon, P., Feltrin, F., Alba, P., Cordaro, G., Iurescia, M., Tolli, R., D\u2019Incau, M., Staffolani, M., and Di Giannatale, E. (2015). Emergence of a clonal lineage of multidrug-resistant ES\u03b2L-producing Salmonella Infantis transmitted from broilers and broiler meat to humans in Italy between 2011 and 2014. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0144802"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2014.11.024","article-title":"A novel subpopulation of Salmonella enterica serovar Infantis strains isolated from broiler chicken organs other than the gastrointestinal tract","volume":"175","author":"Yokoyama","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjid.2016.03.007","article-title":"Characterization of a small outbreak of Salmonella enterica serovar Infantis that harbour CTX-M-65 in Ecuador","volume":"20","author":"Zurita","year":"2016","journal-title":"Braz. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jgar.2017.06.011","article-title":"Resistance to quinolones, cephalosporins and macrolides in Escherichia coli causing bacteraemia in Peruvian children","volume":"11","author":"Palma","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Glob. Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2020.0389","article-title":"A multidrug-resistant Salmonella Infantis clone is spreading and recombining in the United States","volume":"27","author":"Tyson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microb. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2284","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2412.180500","article-title":"CTX-M-65 extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Salmonella enterica serotype Infantis, United States","volume":"24","author":"Brown","year":"2018","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.48.1.1-14.2004","article-title":"Growing group of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: The CTX-M enzymes","volume":"48","author":"Bonnet","year":"2004","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gigu\u00e8re, S., Prescott, J.F., and Dowling, P.M. (2013). Antimicrobial drug use in poultry. Antimicrobial Therapy in Veterinary Medicine, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118675014"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1601.090729","article-title":"Ceftiofur resistance in Salmonella enterica serovar Heidelberg from chicken meat and humans, Canada","volume":"16","author":"Dutil","year":"2010","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00488-17","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00488-17","article-title":"Comparative analysis of extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase CTX-M-65-producing Salmonella enterica serovar Infantis isolates from humans, food animals, and retail chickens in the United States","volume":"61","author":"Tate","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1186\/s12941-017-0209-x","article-title":"Detection of a CTX-M group 2 beta-lactamase gene in a Klebsiella pneumoniae isolate from a tertiary care hospital, Trinidad and Tobago","volume":"16","author":"Cheddie","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1322","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.01322","article-title":"Salmonella enterica serovar Infantis from food and human infections, Switzerland, 2010\u20132015: Poultry-related multidrug resistant clones and an emerging ESBL producing clonal lineage","volume":"8","author":"Hindermann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2012.04.007","article-title":"Multidrug resistant clones of Salmonella Infantis of broiler origin in Europe","volume":"157","author":"Davies","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres:2001123","article-title":"Resistance to trimethoprim and sulfonamides","volume":"32","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5999","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02844-08","article-title":"Distribution of sulfonamide resistance genes in Escherichia coli and Salmonella isolates from swine and chickens at abattoirs in Ontario and Quebec, Canada","volume":"75","author":"Kozak","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2017.07.023","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance and resistance genes in Salmonella strains isolated from broiler chickens along the slaughtering process in China","volume":"259","author":"Zhu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arkali, A., and Cetinkaya, B. (2020). Molecular identification and antibiotic resistance profiling of Salmonella species isolated from chickens in eastern Turkey. BMC Vet. Res., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-020-02425-0"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0146520","DOI":"10.1128\/MRA.01465-20","article-title":"Closed genome sequence of a Salmonella enterica serotype Senftenberg strain carrying the mcr-9 gene isolated from broken chicken eggshells in Trinidad and Tobago","volume":"10","author":"Maguire","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microbiol. Resour. Announc."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00573-20","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00573-20","article-title":"The mcr-9 Gene of Salmonella and Escherichia coli is not associated with colistin resistance in the United States","volume":"64","author":"Tyson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.2165\/00003495-200262040-00001","article-title":"Mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance: Their clinical relevance in the new millennium","volume":"62","author":"Sefton","year":"2002","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sosa, A.d.J., Byarugaba, D.K., Am\u00e1bile-Cuevas, C.F., Hsueh, P.-R., Kariuki, S., and Okeke, I.N. (2010). Antimicrobial Resistance in Developing Countries, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-89370-9"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alam, S.B., Mahmud, M., Akter, R., Hasan, M., Sobur, A., Nazir, K.N.H., Noreddin, A., Rahman, T., El Zowalaty, M.E., and Rahman, M. (2020). Molecular detection of multidrug resistant Salmonella species isolated from broiler farm in Bangladesh. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9030201"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2008.03.029","article-title":"Safety of raw meat and shellfish in Vietnam: An analysis of Escherichia coli isolations for antibiotic resistance and virulence genes","volume":"124","author":"Van","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.18.4.657-686.2005","article-title":"Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: A clinical update","volume":"18","author":"Paterson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3327","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S217421","article-title":"Occurrence, genetic diversities and antibiotic resistance profiles of Salmonella serovars isolated from chickens","volume":"12","author":"Akinola","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1111\/lam.13106","article-title":"Molecular characterization of virulence and antibiotic resistance genes among Salmonella serovars isolated from broilers in Egypt","volume":"68","author":"Ammar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7078","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.177.24.7078-7085.1995","article-title":"Identification of two targets of the type III protein secretion system encoded by the inv and spa loci of Salmonella Typhimurium that have homology to the Shigella IpaD and IpaA proteins","volume":"177","author":"Kaniga","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2958.1996.471410.x","article-title":"Salmonella spp. are cytotoxic for cultured macrophages","volume":"21","author":"Chen","year":"1996","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2958.1998.01047.x","article-title":"Genes encoding putative effector proteins of the type III secretion system of Salmonella pathogenicity island 2 are required for bacterial virulence and proliferation in macrophages","volume":"30","author":"Hensel","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2958.1998.01048.x","article-title":"Macrophage-dependent induction of the Salmonella pathogenicity island 2 type III secretion system and its role in intracellular survival","volume":"30","author":"Cirillo","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2958.1997.mmi525.x","article-title":"A secreted effector protein of Salmonella Dublin is translocated into eukaryotic cells and mediates inflammation and fluid secretion in infected ileal mucosa","volume":"25","author":"Galyov","year":"1997","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1099\/mic.0.2006\/000935-0","article-title":"AgfC and AgfE facilitate extracellular thin aggregative fimbriae synthesis in Salmonella Enteritidis","volume":"153","author":"Gibson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2012.11.025","article-title":"Role of sigma factor E in regulation of Salmonella Agf expression","volume":"430","author":"Yoo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.175.1.12-18.1993","article-title":"Thin, aggregative fimbriae mediate binding of Salmonella Enteritidis to fibronectin","volume":"175","author":"Collinson","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.2008-00466","article-title":"Inoculation of newly hatched broiler chicks with two Brazilian isolates of Salmonella Heidelberg strains with different virulence gene profiles, antimicrobial resistance, and pulsed field gel electrophoresis patterns to intestinal changes evaluation","volume":"88","author":"Borsoi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Den Bakker, H.C., Moreno Switt, A.I., Govoni, G., Cummings, C.A., Ranieri, M.L., Degoricija, L., Hoelzer, K., Rodriguez-Rivera, L.D., Brown, S., and Bolchacova, E. (2011). Genome sequencing reveals diversification of virulence factor content and possible host adaptation in distinct subpopulations of Salmonella enterica. BMC Genomics, 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2164-12-425"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siddiky, N.A., Sarker, M.S., Khan, M.S.R., Begum, R., Kabir, M.E., Karim, M.R., Rahman, M.T., Mahmud, A., and Samad, M.A. (2021). Virulence and antimicrobial resistance profiles of Salmonella enterica serovars isolated from chicken at wet markets in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9050952"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2012.06.008","article-title":"Genetic diversity, virulence genes and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella Enteritidis isolated from food and humans over a 24-year period in Brazil","volume":"32","author":"Campioni","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_90","first-page":"2202","article-title":"Molecular detection of invA and spv virulence genes in Salmonella Enteritidis isolated from human and animals in Iran","volume":"4","author":"Amini","year":"2010","journal-title":"Afr. J. Microbiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1089\/fpd.2009.0447","article-title":"Virulotyping and antimicrobial resistance typing of Salmonella enterica serovars relevant to human health in Europe","volume":"7","author":"Huehn","year":"2010","journal-title":"Foodborne Pathog. Dis."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2012.04.017","article-title":"Phenotypic and genetic characterization of antimicrobial resistance in Salmonella serovars isolated from retail meats in Alberta, Canada","volume":"32","author":"Aslam","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00801-09","article-title":"Fitness costs and stability of a high-level ciprofloxacin resistance phenotype in Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis: Reduced infectivity associated with decreased expression of Salmonella pathogenicity island 1 genes","volume":"54","author":"Quinn","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6139","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.68.11.6139-6146.2000","article-title":"Genetic and functional analysis of a PmrA-PmrB-regulated locus necessary for lipopolysaccharide modification, antimicrobial peptide resistance, and oral virulence of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium","volume":"68","author":"Gunn","year":"2000","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6770","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.70.12.6770-6778.2002","article-title":"Identification and genetic characterization of PmrA-regulated genes and genes involved in polymyxin B resistance in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium","volume":"70","author":"Tamayo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1099\/mic.0.2007\/011114-0","article-title":"The yejABEF operon of Salmonella confers resistance to antimicrobial peptides and contributes to its virulence","volume":"154","author":"Eswarappa","year":"2008","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6976","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0602171103","article-title":"Reducing the fitness cost of antibiotic resistance by amplification of initiator tRNA genes","volume":"103","author":"Nilsson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro2319","article-title":"Antibiotic resistance and its cost: Is it possible to reverse resistance?","volume":"8","author":"Andersson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/10\/3\/570\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:32:57Z","timestamp":1760135577000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/10\/3\/570"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,6]]},"references-count":98,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms10030570"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms10030570","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,6]]}}}