{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T03:14:13Z","timestamp":1792638853426,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":228,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,31]],"date-time":"2022-05-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1653955200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Osteomyelitis is an infection of the bone characterized by progressive inflammatory destruction and apposition of new bone that can spread via the hematogenous route (hematogenous osteomyelitis (HO)), contiguous spread (contiguous osteomyelitis (CO)), and direct inoculation (osteomyelitis associated with peripheral vascular insufficiency (PVI)). Given the significant financial burden posed by osteomyelitis patient management, the development of new preventive and treatment methods is warranted. To achieve this objective, implementing animal models (AMs) of infection such as rats, mice, rabbits, avians, dogs, sheep, goats, and pigs might be of the essence. This review provides a literature analysis of the AMs developed and used to study osteomyelitis. Historical relevance and clinical applicability were taken into account to choose the best AMs, and some study methods are briefly described. Furthermore, the most significant strengths and limitations of each species as AM are discussed, as no single model incorporates all features of osteomyelitis. HO\u2019s clinical manifestation results in extreme variability between patients due to multiple variables (e.g., age, sex, route of infection, anatomical location, and concomitant diseases) that could alter clinical studies. However, these variables can be controlled and tested through different animal models.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10061135","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,1]],"date-time":"2022-06-01T03:33:18Z","timestamp":1654054398000},"page":"1135","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["A Journey into Animal Models of Human Osteomyelitis: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2772-6410","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriele","family":"Meroni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"One Health Unit, Department of Biomedical, Surgical, and Dental Sciences, University of Milan, Via Pascal 36, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexios","family":"Tsikopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 541 24 Thessaloniki, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Konstantinos","family":"Tsikopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Orthopaedic Department, 404 Army Hospital, 412 22 Larissa, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Allemanno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"One Health Unit, Department of Biomedical, Surgical, and Dental Sciences, University of Milan, Via Pascal 36, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0108-638X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Piera Anna","family":"Martino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"One Health Unit, Department of Biomedical, Surgical, and Dental Sciences, University of Milan, Via Pascal 36, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8849-2051","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joel Fernando","family":"Soares Filipe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Milan, Via dell\u2019Universit\u00e0 6, 26900 Lodi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Anderson, L., Otto, G., Pritchett-Corning, K., and Whary, M. 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