{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,24]],"date-time":"2026-04-24T11:33:05Z","timestamp":1777030385021,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":122,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,24]],"date-time":"2022-07-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1658620800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a disabling, costly, and potentially deadly illness. Treatment failure and relapse after treatment are common. Several studies have indicated the involvement of the gut microbiota\u2013brain (GMB) axis. This narrative review hypothesizes that AN is driven by malnutrition-induced alterations in the GMB axis in susceptible individuals. According to this hypothesis, initial weight loss can voluntarily occur through dieting or be caused by somatic or psychiatric diseases. Malnutrition-induced alterations in gut microbiota may increase the sensitivity to anxiety-inducing gastrointestinal hormones released during meals, one of which is cholecystokinin (CCK). The experimental injection of a high dose of its CCK-4 fragment in healthy individuals induces panic attacks, probably via the stimulation of CCK receptors in the brain. Such meal-related anxiety attacks may take part in developing the clinical picture of AN. Malnutrition may also cause increased effects from appetite-reducing hormones that also seem to have roles in AN development and maintenance. The scientific background, including clinical, microbiological, and biochemical factors, of AN is discussed. A novel model for AN development and maintenance in accordance with this hypothesis is presented. Suggestions for future research are also provided.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10081486","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,25]],"date-time":"2022-07-25T01:42:13Z","timestamp":1658713333000},"page":"1486","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Are the Effects of Malnutrition on the Gut Microbiota\u2013Brain Axis the Core Pathologies of Anorexia Nervosa?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5327-8418","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stein","family":"Frostad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Psychiatry, Haukeland University Hospital, 5021 Bergen, Norway"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1343","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMcp1803175","article-title":"Anorexia Nervosa","volume":"382","author":"Mitchell","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. 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