{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T01:32:08Z","timestamp":1791855128479,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,21]],"date-time":"2022-09-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1663718400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Visceral Leishmaniasis (VL) is a vector-borne disease caused by an intracellular protozoa of the genus Leishmania that can be lethal if not treated. VL is caused by Leishmania donovani in Asia and in Eastern Africa, where the pathogens\u2019 reservoir is represented by humans, and by Leishmania infantum in Latin America and in the Mediterranean area, where VL is a zoonotic disease and dog is the main reservoir. A part of the infected individuals become symptomatic, with irregular fever, splenomegaly, anemia or pancytopenia, and weakness, whereas others are asymptomatic. VL treatment has made progress in the last decades with the use of new drugs such as liposomal amphotericin B, and with new therapeutic regimens including monotherapy or a combination of drugs, aiming at shorter treatment duration and avoiding the development of resistance. However, the same treatment protocol may not be effective all over the world, due to differences in the infecting Leishmania species, so depending on the geographical area. This narrative review presents a comprehensive description of the clinical picture of VL, especially in children, the diagnostic approach, and some insight into the most used pharmacological therapies available worldwide.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10101887","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,22]],"date-time":"2022-09-22T05:33:14Z","timestamp":1663824794000},"page":"1887","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":178,"title":["Visceral Leishmaniasis: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment Regimens in Different Geographical Areas with a Focus on Pediatrics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1094-8703","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara","family":"Scarpini","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Specialty School of Pediatrics, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7516-243X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arianna","family":"Dondi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Emergency Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Camilla","family":"Totaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Specialty School of Pediatrics, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9782-6313","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlotta","family":"Biagi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Emergency Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6339-8576","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fraia","family":"Melchionda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Oncology and Hematology \u201cLalla Ser\u00e0gnoli\u201d, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniele","family":"Zama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Emergency Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8175-5488","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luca","family":"Pierantoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Emergency Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Monia","family":"Gennari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Emergency Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cinzia","family":"Campagna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Emergency Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arcangelo","family":"Prete","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Oncology and Hematology \u201cLalla Ser\u00e0gnoli\u201d, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marcello","family":"Lanari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Emergency Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)31012-1","article-title":"Global, Regional, and National Life Expectancy, All-Cause Mortality, and Cause-Specific Mortality for 249 Causes of Death, 1980\u20132015: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015","volume":"388","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"GBD 2017 DALYs and HALE Collaborators (2018). 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