{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,28]],"date-time":"2026-07-28T02:24:21Z","timestamp":1785205461333,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,27]],"date-time":"2022-09-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1664236800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"German Research Foundation (DFG)","award":["JO 1276\/5-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JO 1276\/5-1"]}]},{"name":"German Research Foundation (DFG)","award":["01Kl2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["01Kl2022"]}]},{"name":"Federal Ministry of Education and Research of Germany (BMBF)","award":["JO 1276\/5-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JO 1276\/5-1"]}]},{"name":"Federal Ministry of Education and Research of Germany (BMBF)","award":["01Kl2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["01Kl2022"]}]},{"name":"Deutsches Zentrum f\u00fcr Infektionsforschung (DZIF)","award":["JO 1276\/5-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JO 1276\/5-1"]}]},{"name":"Deutsches Zentrum f\u00fcr Infektionsforschung (DZIF)","award":["01Kl2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["01Kl2022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>It is evident that all the countries surrounding Ghana have experienced epidemics of key arboviruses of medical importance, such as the recent dengue fever epidemic in Burkina Faso. Therefore, Ghana is considered a ripe zone for epidemics of arboviruses, mainly dengue. Surprisingly, Ghana never experienced the propounded deadly dengue epidemic. Indeed, it is mysterious because the mosquito vectors capable of transmitting the dengue virus, such as Aedes aegypti, were identified in Ghana through entomological investigations. Additionally, cases may be missed, as the diagnostic and surveillance capacities of the country are weak. Therefore, we review the arbovirus situation and outline probable reasons for the epidemic mystery in the country. Most of the recorded cases of arbovirus infections were usually investigated via serology by detecting IgM and IgG immunoglobulins in clinical samples, which is indicative of prior exposure but not an active case. This led to the identification of yellow fever virus and dengue virus as the main circulating arboviruses among the Ghanaian population. However, major yellow fever epidemics were reported for over a decade. It is important to note that the reviewed arboviruses were not frequently detected in the vectors. The data highlight the necessity of strengthening the diagnostics and the need for continuous arbovirus and vector surveillance to provide an early warning system for future arbovirus epidemics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10101914","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,28]],"date-time":"2022-09-28T01:51:49Z","timestamp":1664329909000},"page":"1914","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Arbovirus Epidemiology: The Mystery of Unnoticed Epidemics in Ghana, West Africa"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7081-0629","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eric","family":"Agboli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, WHO Collaborating Centre for Arbovirus and Haemorrhagic Fever Reference and Research, 20359 Hamburg, Germany"},{"name":"University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho PMB 31, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexandru","family":"Tomazatos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, WHO Collaborating Centre for Arbovirus and Haemorrhagic Fever Reference and Research, 20359 Hamburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oumou","family":"Maiga-Ascofar\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, WHO Collaborating Centre for Arbovirus and Haemorrhagic Fever Reference and Research, 20359 Hamburg, Germany"},{"name":"Kumasi Centre for Collaborative Research in Tropical Medicine, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, PMB, Kumasi 039-5028, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7831-8420","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J\u00fcrgen","family":"May","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, WHO Collaborating Centre for Arbovirus and Haemorrhagic Fever Reference and Research, 20359 Hamburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1984-839X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Renke","family":"L\u00fchken","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, WHO Collaborating Centre for Arbovirus and Haemorrhagic Fever Reference and Research, 20359 Hamburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonas","family":"Schmidt-Chanasit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, WHO Collaborating Centre for Arbovirus and Haemorrhagic Fever Reference and Research, 20359 Hamburg, Germany"},{"name":"Faculty of Mathematics, Informatics and Natural Sciences, Universit\u00e4t Hamburg, 20359 Hamburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hanna","family":"J\u00f6st","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, WHO Collaborating Centre for Arbovirus and Haemorrhagic Fever Reference and Research, 20359 Hamburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.18.4.608-637.2005","article-title":"Biological Transmission of Arboviruses: Reexamination of and New Insights into Components, Mechanisms, and Unique Traits as Well as Their Evolutionary Trends","volume":"18","author":"Kuno","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moureau, G., Cook, S., Lemey, P., Nougairede, A., Forrester, N.L., Khasnatinov, M., Charrel, R.N., Firth, A.E., Gould, E.A., and de Lamballerie, X. (2015). New Insights into Flavivirus Evolution, Taxonomy and Biogeographic History, Extended by Analysis of Canonical and Alternative Coding Sequences. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0117849"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e416","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(20)30178-9","article-title":"Climate Change Could Shift Disease Burden from Malaria to Arboviruses in Africa","volume":"4","author":"Mordecai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Planet. Health"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"WHO (2017). Global Vector Control Response 2017\u20132030."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agboli, E., Zahouli, J.B.Z., Badolo, A., and J\u00f6st, H. (2021). Mosquito-Associated Viruses and Their Related Mosquitoes in West Africa. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13050891"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kading, R.C., Brault, A.C., and Beckham, J.D. (2020). Global Perspectives on Arbovirus Outbreaks: A 2020 Snapshot. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed5030142"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2559-9","article-title":"Mosquito-Borne Arboviruses of African Origin: Review of Key Viruses and Vectors","volume":"11","author":"Braack","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agboli, E., Leggewie, M., Altinli, M., and Schnettler, E. (2019). Mosquito-Specific Viruses\u2014Transmission and Interaction. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11090873"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Epelboin, Y., Talaga, S., Epelboin, L., and Dusfour, I. (2017). Zika Virus: An Updated Review of Competent or Naturally Infected Mosquitoes. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005933"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2009.05.005","article-title":"Aedes Albopictus, an Arbovirus Vector: From the Darkness to the Light","volume":"11","author":"Paupy","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calzolari, M., Gaibani, P., Bellini, R., Defilippo, F., Pierro, A., Albieri, A., Maioli, G., Luppi, A., Rossini, G., and Balzani, A. (2012). Mosquito, Bird and Human Surveillance of West Nile and Usutu Viruses in Emilia-Romagna Region (Italy) in 2010. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0038058"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(68)90168-5","article-title":"Isolations of Arboviruses in the Lagos Area of Nigeria, and a Survey of Antibodies to Them in Man and Animals","volume":"62","author":"Boorman","year":"1968","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2010.0031","article-title":"Detection, Isolation, and Genetic Characterization of Rift Valley Fever Virus from Anopheles (Anopheles) Coustani, Anopheles (Anopheles) Squamosus, and Culex (Culex) Antennatus of the Haute Matsiatra Region, Madagascar","volume":"11","author":"Ratovonjato","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maquart, M., Boyer, S., Rakotoharinome, V.M., Ravaomanana, J., Tantely, M.L., Heraud, J.-M., and Cardinale, E. (2016). High Prevalence of West Nile Virus in Domestic Birds and Detection in 2 New Mosquito Species in Madagascar. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0147589"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e101","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(16)30518-7","article-title":"Epidemic Arboviral Diseases: Priorities for Research and Public Health","volume":"17","author":"Gubler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mwanyika, G.O., Mboera, L.E.G., Rugarabamu, S., Ngingo, B., Sindato, C., Lutwama, J.J., Paweska, J.T., and Misinzo, G. (2021). Dengue Virus Infection and Associated Risk Factors in Africa: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13040536"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"430","article-title":"Knowledge of Health Workers in Public Health Centers of the Health District of Lom\u00e9 Commune on Dengue","volume":"11","author":"Bawe","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2014.02.017","article-title":"Deconstructing \u201cMalaria\u201d: West Africa as the next Front for Dengue Fever Surveillance and Control","volume":"134","author":"Stoler","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"MoH (2022, April 20). Health Alert on Dengue Fever. Ministry of Health Republic of Ghana, Available online: https:\/\/www.moh.gov.gh\/health-alert-on-dengue-fever\/."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2020.105468","article-title":"Aedes-Borne Disease Outbreaks in West Africa: A Call for Enhanced Surveillance","volume":"209","author":"Buchwald","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(57)90079-2","article-title":"A Small Outbreak of Yellow Fever in the Gold Coast","volume":"51","author":"Boorman","year":"1957","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1080\/00034983.1961.11686042","article-title":"Yellow Fever at Tema, Ghana, 1959: A Serological Survey by Complement Fixation","volume":"55","author":"Fabiyi","year":"1961","journal-title":"Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"577","article-title":"Yellow Fever in Ghana, 1977\u20131980","volume":"62","author":"Agadzi","year":"1984","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"422","article-title":"Recent Yellow Fever Epidemics in Ghana (1969\u20131983)","volume":"63","author":"Addy","year":"1986","journal-title":"East Afr. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"WHO (2005). Yellow Fever Cases Reported in Ghana, 1950\u20132004."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Disaster Relief Emergency Fund (DREF) (2022, February 10). Ghana: Yellow Fever Outbreak. Available online: https:\/\/reliefweb.int\/report\/ghana\/ghana-yellow-fever-outbreak-dref-operation-n%C2%B0-mdrgh005-final-report."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"WHO (2016). Yellow Fever Situation Report."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"WHO (2021). Yellow Fever-Ghana."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"WHO (2022). Regional Office in Africa. Weekly Bulletins on Outbreaks and Other Emergencies. Week 17: 18\u201324 April 2022."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1401.070865","article-title":"Molecular Epidemiology of Dengue Virus Strains from Finnish Travelers","volume":"14","author":"Huhtamo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.14-0678","article-title":"Evidence of Recent Dengue Exposure Among Malaria Parasite-Positive Children in Three Urban Centers in Ghana","volume":"92","author":"Stoler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e35","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0000000000001718","article-title":"Zika Virus Exposure in an HIV-Infected Cohort in Ghana","volume":"78","author":"Sherman","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAIDS J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"1","article-title":"Detection of Dengue Virus in Samples from Suspected Yellow Fever Cases in Ghana","volume":"24","author":"Kutame","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiol. Res. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.4314\/jmbs.v5i2.5","article-title":"Dengue Virus Exposure among Blood Donors in Ghana","volume":"5","author":"Narkwa","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Med. Biomed. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"2132","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Dengue Virus Infections in Ghana","volume":"95","author":"Mingle","year":"2018","journal-title":"East Afr. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonney, J.H.K., Hayashi, T., Dadzie, S., Agbosu, E., Pratt, D., Nyarko, S., Asiedu-Bekoe, F., Ido, E., Sarkodie, B., and Ohta, N. (2018). Molecular Detection of Dengue Virus in Patients Suspected of Ebola Virus Disease in Ghana. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0208907"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1544","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2408.180341","article-title":"Detection of Dengue Virus among Children with Suspected Malaria, Accra, Ghana","volume":"24","author":"Amoako","year":"2018","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manu, S.K., Bonney, J.H.K., Pratt, D., Abdulai, F.N., Agbosu, E.E., Frimpong, P.O., and Adiku, T.K. (2019). Arbovirus Circulation among Febrile Patients at the Greater Accra Regional Hospital, Ghana. BMC Res. Notes, 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-019-4378-x"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"60","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Dengue Viral Infection among Adults Attending the University of Cape Coast Hospital","volume":"11","author":"Dankwa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1089\/vim.2008.0066","article-title":"Seroprevalence of West Nile Virus in Ghana","volume":"22","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Viral Immunol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ankrah, G.A., Bonney, J.H.K., Agbosu, E.E., Pratt, D., and Adiku, T.K. (2019). Serological Evidence of Zika Virus Infection in Febrile Patients at Greater Accra Regional Hospital, Accra Ghana. BMC Res. Notes, 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-019-4371-4"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"956","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.6118.956","article-title":"Viral Infections in Travellers from Tropical Africa","volume":"1","author":"Woodruff","year":"1978","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akuffo, R., Brandful, J.A.M., Zayed, A., Adjei, A., Watany, N., Fahmy, N.T., Hughes, R., Doman, B., Voegborlo, S.V., and Aziati, D. (2016). Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus in Livestock Ticks and Animal Handler Seroprevalence at an Abattoir in Ghana. BMC Infect. Dis., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-016-1660-6"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"137","article-title":"Surveillance of Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers in Ghana: Entomological Assessment of the Risk of Transmission in the Northern Regions","volume":"40","author":"Appawu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ghana Med. J."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amoa-Bosompem, M., Kobayashi, D., Murota, K., Faizah, A.N., Itokawa, K., Fujita, R., Osei, J.H.N., Agbosu, E., Pratt, D., and Kimura, S. (2020). Entomological Assessment of the Status and Risk of Mosquito-Borne Arboviral Transmission in Ghana. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12020147"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joannides, J., Dzodzomenyo, M., Azerigyik, F., Agbosu, E.E., Pratt, D., Nyarko Osei, J.H., Pwalia, R., Amlalo, G.K., Appawu, M., and Takashi, H. (2021). Species Composition and Risk of Transmission of Some Aedes-Borne Arboviruses in Some Sites in Northern Ghana. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0234675"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-022-05208-8","article-title":"Ticks and Prevalence of Tick-Borne Pathogens from Domestic Animals in Ghana","volume":"15","author":"Mosore","year":"2022","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2017.04.010","article-title":"Detection of a Novel Putative Phlebovirus and First Isolation of Dugbe Virus from Ticks in Accra, Ghana","volume":"8","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ticks Tick. Borne. Dis."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-021-05296-4","article-title":"Screening for Tick-Borne and Tick-Associated Viruses in Ticks Collected in Ghana","volume":"167","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adam, A., and Jassoy, C. (2021). Epidemiology and Laboratory Diagnostics of Dengue, Yellow Fever, Zika, and Chikungunya Virus Infections in Africa. Pathogens, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens10101324"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"CDC (2021, March 19). Yellow Fever, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/globalhealth\/newsroom\/topics\/yellowfever\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1093\/jme\/tjaa024","article-title":"Biting Behavior and Molecular Identification of Aedes Aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) Subspecies in Some Selected Recent Yellow Fever Outbreak Communities in Northern Ghana","volume":"57","author":"Frempong","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2504.180750","article-title":"Sand Fly\u2013Associated Phlebovirus with Evidence of Neutralizing Antibodies in Humans, Kenya","volume":"25","author":"Tchouassi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-04058-6","article-title":"Phlebotomine Sand Flies in Southwest Germany: An Update with Records in New Locations","volume":"13","author":"Oerther","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2014.01.011","article-title":"Emerging Phleboviruses","volume":"5","author":"Elliott","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.en.33.010188.001125","article-title":"The Genus Phlebovirus And Its Vectors","volume":"33","author":"Tesh","year":"1988","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1657","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1111.050869","article-title":"Emergence of Toscana Virus in Europe","volume":"11","author":"Charrel","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-015-0407-0","article-title":"Co-Circulation of a Novel Phlebovirus and Massilia Virus in Sandflies, Portugal","volume":"12","author":"Amaro","year":"2015","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1994.50.570","article-title":"First Isolations of Arboviruses from Phlebotomine Sand Flies in West Africa","volume":"50","author":"Fontenille","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585(2005)042[0495:DOCVFS]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Detection of Chandipura Virus from Sand Flies in the Genus Sergentomyia (Diptera: Phlebotomidae) at Karimnagar District, Andhra Pradesh, India","volume":"42","author":"Geevarghese","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.21467\/ias.10.1.33-44","article-title":"Identification of Sand Flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) Collected from Cutaneous Leishmaniasis Endemic Focus in the Ho Municipality, Ghana","volume":"10","author":"Doe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Ann. Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-04181-4","article-title":"Age-Structured Vectorial Capacity Reveals Timing, Not Magnitude of within-Mosquito Dynamics Is Critical for Arbovirus Fitness Assessment","volume":"13","author":"Mayton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.64.1.115-137.2000","article-title":"Genetics of Mosquito Vector Competence","volume":"64","author":"Beerntsen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2017.06.001","article-title":"Emerging Arboviruses: Why Today?","volume":"4","author":"Gould","year":"2017","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"1","article-title":"Determining Vector Competence of Aedes Aegypti from Ghana in Transmitting Dengue Virus Serotypes 1 and 2","volume":"14","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2015.06.009","article-title":"A Survey of Malaria and Some Arboviral Infections among Suspected Febrile Patients Visiting a Health Centre in Simawa, Ogun State, Nigeria","volume":"9","author":"Ayorinde","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stoler, J., and Awandare, G.A. (2016). Febrile Illness Diagnostics and the Malaria-Industrial Complex: A Socio-Environmental Perspective. BMC Infect. Dis., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-016-2025-x"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-016-1100-5","article-title":"Concurrent Malaria and Arbovirus Infections in Kedougou, Southeastern Senegal","volume":"15","author":"Sow","year":"2016","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1838","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cix1120","article-title":"Malaria Coinfections in Febrile Pediatric Inpatients: A Hospital-Based Study From Ghana","volume":"66","author":"Hogan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690087","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.690087","article-title":"Intracellular Interactions Between Arboviruses and Wolbachia in Aedes Aegypti","volume":"11","author":"Reyes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10039","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-89409-8","article-title":"Reduced Competence to Arboviruses Following the Sustainable Invasion of Wolbachia into Native Aedes Aegypti from Southeastern Brazil","volume":"11","author":"Gesto","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McFarlane, M., Arias-Goeta, C., Martin, E., O\u2019Hara, Z., Lulla, A., Mousson, L., Rainey, S.M., Misbah, S., Schnettler, E., and Donald, C.L. (2014). Characterization of Aedes Aegypti Innate-Immune Pathways That Limit Chikungunya Virus Replication. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002994"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-019-3433-8","article-title":"Mosquito Antiviral Defense Mechanisms: A Delicate Balance between Innate Immunity and Persistent Viral Infection","volume":"12","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1664","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/30.7.1664","article-title":"Post-Transcriptional Suppression of Gene Expression in Xenopus Embryos by Small Interfering RNA","volume":"30","author":"Zhou","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2018.10.004","article-title":"RNAi-Mediated Antiviral Immunity in Insects and Their Possible Application","volume":"32","author":"Leggewie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2019.00890","article-title":"Arboviruses and the Challenge to Establish Systemic and Persistent Infections in Competent Mosquito Vectors: The Interaction With the RNAi Mechanism","volume":"10","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00e1nchez-Vargas, I., Scott, J.C., Poole-Smith, B.K., Franz, A.W.E., Barbosa-Solomieu, V., Wilusz, J., Olson, K.E., and Blair, C.D. (2009). Dengue Virus Type 2 Infections of Aedes Aegypti Are Modulated by the Mosquito\u2019s RNA Interference Pathway. PLoS Pathog., 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000299"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1680","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.053850-0","article-title":"Knockdown of PiRNA Pathway Proteins Results in Enhanced Semliki Forest Virus Production in Mosquito Cells","volume":"94","author":"Schnettler","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2008.02.008","article-title":"Ecological Immunology of Mosquito\u2013Malaria Interactions","volume":"24","author":"Tripet","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2270","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)31376-4","article-title":"Renewed Push to Strengthen Vector Control Globally","volume":"389","author":"Alonso","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Achee, N.L., Grieco, J.P., Vatandoost, H., Seixas, G., Pinto, J., Ching-NG, L., Martins, A.J., Juntarajumnong, W., Corbel, V., and Gouagna, C. (2019). Alternative Strategies for Mosquito-Borne Arbovirus Control. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0007275"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3156.1996.tb00020.x","article-title":"Impact of Permethrin Impregnated Bednets on Child Mortality in Kassena-Nankana District, Ghana: A Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"1","author":"Binka","year":"1996","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Int. Health"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-019-3051-0","article-title":"Understanding the Gap between Access and Use: A Qualitative Study on Barriers and Facilitators to Insecticide-Treated Net Use in Ghana","volume":"18","author":"Ahorlu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"35","article-title":"Ownership and Utilization of Long Lasting Insecticide Treated Nets ( LLIN ) and Factors Associated to Non-Utilization Among Pregnant Women in Ho Municipality of Ghana","volume":"2","author":"Axame","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cent. African J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"3","article-title":"Possible Contributing Factors to the Paucity of Yellow Fever Epidemics in the Ashanti Region of Ghana, West Africa","volume":"73","author":"Addy","year":"1996","journal-title":"East Afr. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-021-03692-4","article-title":"Strengthening Community and Stakeholder Participation in the Implementation of Integrated Vector Management for Malaria Control in Western Kenya: A Case Study","volume":"20","author":"Aduogo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"WHO (2016). A Toolkit for Integrated Vector Management in Sub-Saharan Africa, WHO\/HTM\/NTD\/VEM\/2016.02."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zahouli, J.B.Z., Koudou, B.G., M\u00fcller, P., Malone, D., Tano, Y., and Utzinger, J. (2017). Urbanization Is a Main Driver for the Larval Ecology of Aedes Mosquitoes in Arbovirus-Endemic Settings in South-Eastern C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0005751"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schmidt-Chanasit, J., Agboli, E., and J\u00f6st, H. (2022). Special Issue \u201cMosquito-Borne Virus Ecology. \u201d Viruses, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/v14020357"},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"MoFA (2016). Agriculture in Ghana Facts and Figures (2015)."},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"1349","article-title":"Dengue Virus Infection in Africa","volume":"17","author":"Amarasinghe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e04389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2020.e04389","article-title":"The Epidemiology of Dengue Outbreaks in 2016 and 2017 in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso","volume":"6","author":"Im","year":"2020","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1946","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)61151-9","article-title":"Drivers, Dynamics, and Control of Emerging Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases","volume":"380","author":"Kilpatrick","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2003.06.001","article-title":"Does Irrigated Urban Agriculture Influence the Transmission of Malaria in the City of Kumasi, Ghana?","volume":"89","author":"Afrane","year":"2004","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2000.63.90","article-title":"Enhanced Development in Nature of Larval Anopheles Arabiensis Mosquitoes Feeding on Maize Pollen","volume":"63","author":"Pollack","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-019-3840-x","article-title":"High Genetic Diversity but No Geographical Structure of Aedes Albopictus Populations in R\u00e9union Island","volume":"12","author":"Latreille","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602863","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2020.602863","article-title":"Mosquito Diversity and Population Genetic Structure of Six Mosquito Species From Hainan Island","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fernando, H.S.D., Hapugoda, M., Perera, R., Black IV, W.C., and De Silva, B.G.D.N.K. (2020). Mitochondrial Metabolic Genes Provide Phylogeographic Relationships of Global Collections of Aedes Aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0235430"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sylla, M., Bosio, C., Urdaneta-Marquez, L., Ndiaye, M., and Black, W.C. (2009). Gene Flow, Subspecies Composition, and Dengue Virus-2 Susceptibility among Aedes Aegypti Collections in Senegal. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000408"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13964","article-title":"Evolution of Mosquito Preference for Humans Linked to an Odorant Receptor","volume":"515","author":"McBride","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2013.07.020","article-title":"Culicoides Biting Midges, Arboviruses and Public Health in Europe","volume":"100","author":"Carpenter","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antiviral Res."}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/10\/10\/1914\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:40:13Z","timestamp":1760143213000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/10\/10\/1914"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,27]]},"references-count":101,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms10101914"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms10101914","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,27]]}}}