{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T21:43:15Z","timestamp":1791322995012,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,10]],"date-time":"2023-01-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1673308800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NIH","award":["U19AI62629"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U19AI62629"]}]},{"name":"NIH","award":["U54GM104938"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U54GM104938"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Gram-positive bacterial infections are a major cause of organ failure and mortality in sepsis. Cell wall peptidoglycan (PGN) is shed during bacterial replication, and Bacillus anthracis PGN promotes a sepsis-like pathology in baboons. Herein, we determined the ability of polymeric Bacillus anthracis PGN free from TLR ligands to shape human dendritic cell (DC) responses that are important for the initiation of T cell immunity. Monocyte-derived DCs from healthy donors were incubated with PGN polymers isolated from Bacillus anthracis and Staphylococcus aureus. PGN activated the human DCs, as judged by the increased expression of surface HLA-DR, CD83, the T cell costimulatory molecules CD40 and CD86, and the chemokine receptor CCR7. PGN elicited the DC production of IL-23, IL-6, and IL-1\u03b2 but not IL-12p70. The PGN-stimulated DCs induced the differentiation of na\u00efve allogeneic CD4+ T cells into T helper (TH) cells producing IL-17 and IL-21. Notably, the DCs from a subset of donors did not produce significant levels of IL-23 and IL-1\u03b2 upon PGN stimulation, suggesting that common polymorphisms in immune response genes regulate the PGN response. In sum, purified PGN is a highly stimulatory cell wall component that activates human DCs to secrete proinflammatory cytokines and promote the differentiation of TH17 cells that are important for neutrophil recruitment in extracellular bacterial infections.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11010173","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,10]],"date-time":"2023-01-10T02:27:12Z","timestamp":1673317632000},"page":"173","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Gram-Positive Bacteria Cell Wall Peptidoglycan Polymers Activate Human Dendritic Cells to Produce IL-23 and IL-1\u03b2 and Promote TH17 Cell Differentiation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Sean","family":"Turner","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brent","family":"Raisley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kimberly","family":"Roach","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sandra","family":"Baja\u00f1a","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Melissa E.","family":"Munroe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9574-7355","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Judith A.","family":"James","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"},{"name":"Department of Medicine and Pathology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"K. Mark","family":"Coggeshall","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5479-9952","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susan","family":"Kovats","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3010","article-title":"Immunity against Staphylococcus aureus cutaneous infections","volume":"11","author":"Miller","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. 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