{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T17:43:22Z","timestamp":1792086202512,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,1]],"date-time":"2023-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1690848000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Laboratory diagnosis of Toxoplasma gondii infection plays a crucial role in ensuring the safety of blood recipients, especially in the case of immunosuppressed people, such as organ transplant patients. Toxoplasmosis, caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii, is a potential threat to people with weakened immune systems, and blood transfusions from infected donors can lead to severe complications. In this publication, we analyze the medical relevance of Toxoplasma infection in the context of the safety of blood recipients, focusing on the immunosuppressed patient population. We present various diagnostic methods, such as serological, molecular, and microscopic tests, which can detect the presence of Toxoplasma gondii in donors\u2019 blood. We also discuss the importance of adequately interpreting diagnostic results, considering risk factors, and detectability of the infection. We pay special attention to high-sensitivity and -specificity diagnostic techniques, which allow us to minimize the risk of Toxoplasma gondii transmission to blood recipients. Our findings have important implications for clinical practice and organ transplantation guidelines, emphasizing the need to diagnose and monitor Toxoplasma infections in blood donors and recipients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11081980","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,1]],"date-time":"2023-08-01T09:14:40Z","timestamp":1690881280000},"page":"1980","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["The Medical Relevance of Toxoplasma Infections in Terms of the Safety of Blood Recipients under Immunosuppression\u2014A Meta-Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2673-8313","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roland","family":"Weso\u0142owski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, 87-100 Toru\u0144, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1640-9196","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Paw\u0142owska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, 87-100 Toru\u0144, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8271-2874","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Celestyna","family":"Mila-Kierzenkowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, 87-100 Toru\u0144, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szewczyk-Golec, K., Paw\u0142owska, M., Weso\u0142owski, R., Wr\u00f3blewski, M., and Mila-Kierzenkowska, C. (2021). Oxidative Stress as a Possible Target in the Treatment of Toxoplasmosis: Perspectives and Ambiguities. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22115705"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2020.09.006","article-title":"Serology for Toxoplasma in Immunocompromised Patients: Still Useful?","volume":"37","author":"Dupont","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weso\u0142owski, R., Paw\u0142owska, M., Smogu\u0142a, M., and Szewczyk-Golec, K. (2023). Advances and Challenges in Diagnostics of Toxoplasmosis in HIV-Infected Patients. Pathogens, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12010110"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De La Mata Navazo, S., Sl\u00f6cker Barrio, M., Garc\u00eda-Mor\u00edn, M., Bel\u00e9ndez, C., Escobar Fern\u00e1ndez, L., Rinc\u00f3n-L\u00f3pez, E.M., Aguilera Alonso, D., Guinea, J., Mar\u00edn, M., and Butrague\u00f1o-Laiseca, L. (2022). Case Report: Severe ARDS in a Pediatric Hematopoietic Stem-Cell Transplantation Recipient Caused by Disseminated Toxoplasmosis. Front. Pediatr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2021.810718"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adekunle, R.O., Sherman, A., Spicer, J.O., Messina, J.A., Steinbrink, J.M., Sexton, M.E., Lyon, G.M., Mehta, A.K., Phadke, V.K., and Woodworth, M.H. (2021). Clinical Characteristics and Outcomes of Toxoplasmosis among Transplant Recipients at Two US Academic Medical Centers. Transpl. Infect. Dis., 23.","DOI":"10.1111\/tid.13636"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"La Hoz, R.M., and Morris, M.I. (2019). The Infectious Diseases Community of Practice of the American Society of Transplantation Tissue and Blood Protozoa Including Toxoplasmosis, Chagas Disease, Leishmaniasis, Babesia, Acanthamoeba, Balamuthia, and Naegleria in Solid Organ Transplant Recipients\u2014Guidelines from the American Society of Transplantation Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. Clin. Transpl., 33.","DOI":"10.1111\/ctr.13546"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.4103\/joah.joah_31_19","article-title":"Toxoplasmosis among Blood Donors: Unsafe Blood Transfusion in Ibadan, Southwest Nigeria","volume":"10","author":"Amoo","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"243","article-title":"Assessment of Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in Blood Donors Applied to the Blood Center of Gazi University Hospital","volume":"13","author":"Turk","year":"2021","journal-title":"Iran. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stopi\u0107, M., \u0160tajner, T., Markovi\u0107-Deni\u0107, L., Nikoli\u0107, V., Djilas, I., Srzenti\u0107, S.J., Djurkovi\u0107-Djakovi\u0107, O., and Bobi\u0107, B. (2022). Epidemiology of Toxoplasmosis in SERBIA: A Cross-Sectional Study on Blood Donors. Microorganisms, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10030492"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"611","article-title":"High Occurrence of Toxoplasma gondii Infection among Blood Donors in Ardabil Province as Main Focus of Zoonotic Visceral Leishmaniosis, Northwestern Iran","volume":"67","author":"Asfaram","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2010.01.009","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii: Epidemiology, Feline Clinical Aspects, and Prevention","volume":"26","author":"Elmore","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2020049","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii among Healthy Blood Donors in Two Locations in Tunisia and Associated Risk Factors","volume":"27","author":"Lachkhem","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2019.00461","article-title":"Serum IgG Anti-Toxoplasma gondii Antibody Concentrations Do Not Correlate Nested PCR Results in Blood Donors","volume":"9","author":"Nakashima","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2019.00103","article-title":"Mechanisms of Human Innate Immune Evasion by Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"9","author":"Lima","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.15698\/mic2017.07.579","article-title":"Impact of the Host on Toxoplasma Stage Differentiation","volume":"4","author":"Rahman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microb. Cell"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"435","article-title":"Toxoplasmosis in Germany: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Risk Factors, and Treatment","volume":"116","author":"Pleyer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dtsch. \u00c4rzteb. Int."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2020.10.009","article-title":"Toxoplasmosis after Allogeneic Haematopoietic Cell Transplantation\u2014Disease Burden and Approaches to Diagnosis, Prevention and Management in Adults and Children","volume":"27","author":"Rauwolf","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1111\/pim.12173","article-title":"Persistence of Toxoplasma gondii in the Central Nervous System: A Fine-Tuned Balance between the Parasite, the Brain and the Immune System","volume":"37","author":"Blanchard","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasite Immunol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hosseini, S.A., Golchin, E., Sharif, M., Sarvi, S., Ahmadpour, E., Rostamian, A., Gholami, S., Amouei, A., and Daryani, A. (2020). A Serological Investigation and Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii among Iranian Blood Donors Indicates Threat to Health of Blood Recipients. Transfus. Apher. Sci., 59.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.transci.2020.102723"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alvarado-Esquivel, C., Mercado-Suarez, M.F., Rodr\u00edguez-Briones, A., Fallad-Torres, L., Ayala-Ayala, J.O., Nevarez-Piedra, L.J., Duran-Morales, E., Estrada-Mart\u00ednez, S., Liesenfeld, O., and M\u00e1rquez-Conde, J.\u00c1. (2007). Seroepidemiology of Infection with Toxoplasma gondii in Healthy Blood Donors of Durango, Mexico. BMC Infect. Dis., 7.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-7-75"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodrigues, F.T., Sousa, A.P., Escoval, M.A., Conde\u00e7o, J., Cardoso, L., and Lopes, A.P. (2020). Seroepidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii in Blood Donors in Portugal. Transfus. Apher. Sci., 59.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.transci.2020.102777"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mardani, A. (2020). Prevention Strategies of Transfusion-Transmitted Parasitic Infections (TTPIs): Strengths and Challenges of Current Approaches, and Evaluation of the Strategies Implemented in Iran. Parasite Epidemiol. Control, 9.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parepi.2020.e00141"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pawe\u0142czyk, A., Bednarska, M., Caraballo Cort\u00e9s, K., Glamkowska-Sady, M., Kowalska, J., Uszy\u0144ska-Ka\u0142u\u017ca, B., Radkowski, M., and Welc-Fal\u0119ciak, R. (2022). Seronegative Infection with Toxoplasma gondii in Asymptomatic Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1)-Infected Patients and in Blood Donors. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11030638"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2023, June 24). Rozporz\u0105dzenie Ministra Zdrowia z Dnia 11 Wrze\u015bnia 2017 r. w Sprawie Warunk\u00f3w Pobierania Krwi Od Kandydat\u00f3w Na Dawc\u00f3w Krwi i Dawc\u00f3w Krwi. Regulation of the Minister of Health of September 11, 2017 on the Conditions for Collecting Blood from Candidates for Blood Donors and Blood Donors, Available online: https:\/\/isap.sejm.gov.pl\/isap.nsf\/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20170001741."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Botein, E.F., Darwish, A., El-Tantawy, N.L., EL-baz, R., Eid, M.I., and Shaltot, A.M. (2019). Serological and Molecular Screening of Umbilical Cord Blood for Toxoplasma gondii Infection. Transpl. Infect. Dis., 21.","DOI":"10.1111\/tid.13117"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lupu, M.A., Lighezan, R., Paduraru, A.A., Dragomir, A., Pavel, R., Grada, S., Mihu, A.G., Ursoniu, S., and Olariu, T.R. (2022). Seroepidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Blood Donors from Western Romania. Microorganisms, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10050973"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmrv.2016.03.002","article-title":"Toxoplasmosis in Blood Donors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"30","author":"Majidiani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transfus. Med. Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Belkacemi, M., and Heddi, B. (2022). Toxoplasmosis Immunity Status of Blood Donors in Sidi Bel Abb\u00e8s, West Algeria. Cureus, 14.","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.28826"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"110","article-title":"Recent Updates in Transfusion Transmitted Parasitic Diseases","volume":"2","year":"2015","journal-title":"Aperito J. Bacteriol. Virol. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"2846","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Toxoplasmosis among Blood Donors in a Tertiary Care Teaching Hospital in South India","volume":"4","author":"Saraswathi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Sci. Clin. Invent."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1111\/pim.12198","article-title":"Seroprevalence and Risk Factors of Toxoplasma gondii Infection among Healthy Blood Donors in South-East of Iran","volume":"37","author":"Mahmoudvand","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasite Immunol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bahhaj, R., Ahmadpour, E., Mahami-Oskouei, M., Fallah, E., Shamsasenjan, K., and Safaiyan, A. (2017). Toxoplasma gondii Infection and Related Risk Factors Among Blood Donors in Northwest Iran. Arch. Clin. Infect. Dis., 12.","DOI":"10.5812\/archcid.62005"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manouchehri Naeini, K., Heidari Soureshjani, E., Jafari, M., Parchami, S., Karimi, G., and Abdizade, R. (2019). Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Healthy Volunteer Blood Donors Using Serological and Molecular Methods from Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province, Southwest Iran. Jundishapur J. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.5812\/jjm.91042"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jafari Modrek, M., Mousavi, M., and Saravani, R. (2014). Toxoplasma gondii Seroprevalence Among Blood Donors in Zahedan, Southeastern Iran. Int. J. Infect., 1.","DOI":"10.17795\/iji-21111"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.5505\/ejm.2023.76743","article-title":"Seropositivity of Toxoplasma gondii Among Blood Donors and Patients with Hematologic Malignity","volume":"28","author":"Esen","year":"2023","journal-title":"East J. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.transci.2018.12.003","article-title":"Seroprevalence and Molecular Detection of Toxoplasma gondii in Healthy Blood Donors in Southwest Iran","volume":"58","author":"Saki","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transfus. Apher. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paraboni, M.L.R., Commodaro, A.G., Campi-Azevedo, A.C., Brito-de-Sousa, J.P., Gon\u00e7alves, I.L., Da Costa, D.F., Ribeiro, K.S., Garcia, J.L., Silveira, C., and Martins-Filho, O.A. (2022). Seroprevalence and Systemic Immune Biomarkers Associated with Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Blood Donors from Southern Brazil. Immunobiology, 227.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imbio.2022.152294"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.4103\/1687-7942.192992","article-title":"Detection of T. Gondii Infection in Blood Donors in Alexandria, Egypt, Using Serological and Molecular Strategies","volume":"9","author":"Sadek","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasitol. United J."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiang, T.-Y., Hsieh, H.-H., Kuo, M.-C., Chiu, K.-T., Lin, W.-C., Fan, C.-K., Fang, C.-T., and Ji, D.-D. (2012). Seroepidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii Infection among Healthy Blood Donors in Taiwan. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0048139"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.3855\/jidc.3831","article-title":"Seroprevalence and Molecular Diagnosis of Toxoplasma gondii Infection among Blood Donors in Southern Iran","volume":"8","author":"Sarkari","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dev. Ctries"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.V37.4.388.388","article-title":"Transmission of Toxoplasmosis by Leukocyte Transfusion","volume":"37","author":"Siegel","year":"1971","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2005.01332.x","article-title":"Real-time PCR targeting a 529-bp repeat element for diagnosis of toxoplasmosis","volume":"12","author":"Edvinsson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2018037","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Blood Donors in Mainland China: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"25","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2018009","article-title":"Assessing Viability and Infectivity of Foodborne and Waterborne Stages (Cysts\/Oocysts) of Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium spp., and Toxoplasma gondii: A Review of Methods","volume":"25","author":"Rousseau","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasite"}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/11\/8\/1980\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:23:59Z","timestamp":1760127839000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/11\/8\/1980"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,1]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms11081980"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms11081980","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,1]]}}}