{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T23:25:27Z","timestamp":1790810727482,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":153,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,15]],"date-time":"2023-09-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1694736000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000199","name":"United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020-67015-30881UWSC11920"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020-67015-30881UWSC11920"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000199","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000199","name":"United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 HD102487"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 HD102487"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000199","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000199","name":"United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01AI089441"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01AI089441"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000199","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000199","name":"United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R21AI140881"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R21AI140881"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000199","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000199","name":"United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R56AI146067"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R56AI146067"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000199","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000199","name":"United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01AI158524"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01AI158524"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000199","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000199","name":"United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01AI111341"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01AI111341"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000199","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000199","name":"United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01HD080670"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01HD080670"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000199","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020-67015-30881UWSC11920"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020-67015-30881UWSC11920"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 HD102487"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 HD102487"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01AI089441"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01AI089441"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R21AI140881"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R21AI140881"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R56AI146067"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R56AI146067"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01AI158524"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01AI158524"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01AI111341"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01AI111341"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01HD080670"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01HD080670"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cryptosporidium species and Giardia duodenalis are infectious intestinal protozoan pathogens that cause alarming rates of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Children are more likely to have clinical symptoms due to their less developed immune systems and factors such as undernutrition, especially in low- and middle-income countries. The severity of the symptoms and clinical manifestations in children may vary from asymptomatic to life-threatening depending on the Cryptosporidium species\/G. duodenalis strains and the resulting complex stepwise interactions between the parasite, the host nutritional and immunologic status, and the gut microbiome profile. Structural damages inflicted by both parasites to epithelial cells in the large and small intestines could severely impair children\u2019s gut health, including the ability to absorb nutrients, resulting in stunted growth, diminished neurocognitive development, and other long-term effects. Clinically approved cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis drugs have broad antimicrobial effects that have incomprehensible impacts on growing children\u2019s gut health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11092323","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,15]],"date-time":"2023-09-15T03:50:10Z","timestamp":1694749810000},"page":"2323","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["The Gut-Wrenching Effects of Cryptosporidiosis and Giardiasis in Children"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Mayuri","family":"Prabakaran","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases (CERID), Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lyssa","family":"Weible","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases (CERID), Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joshua","family":"Champlain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases (CERID), Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ryan","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases (CERID), Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katalina","family":"Biondi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Human Center for Artificial Intelligence, Department of Computer Science, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ana","family":"Weil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases (CERID), Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wesley","family":"Van Voorhis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases (CERID), Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2007-2170","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kayode","family":"Ojo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases (CERID), Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1204","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30925-9","article-title":"Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990\u20132019: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019","volume":"396","author":"Abbafati","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lanata, C.F., Fischer-Walker, C.L., Olascoaga, A.C., Torres, C.X., Aryee, M.J., Black, R.E., and Child Health Epidemiology Reference Group of the World Health Organization and UNICEF (2013). Global causes of diarrheal disease mortality in children <5 years of age: A systematic review. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0072788"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(01)00144-X","article-title":"Enteroaggregative Escherichia coli","volume":"1","author":"Okeke","year":"2001","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.12328.1","article-title":"Antibiotic treatment of acute gastroenteritis in children","volume":"7","author":"Bruzzese","year":"2018","journal-title":"F1000Research"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1097\/MOP.0000000000001107","article-title":"Bacterial diarrhoea","volume":"34","author":"Kotloff","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2369","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1600266","article-title":"The Human Intestinal Microbiome in Health and Disease","volume":"375","author":"Lynch","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"f7204","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.f7204","article-title":"Diagnosis, management, and prevention of rotavirus gastroenteritis in children","volume":"347","author":"Parashar","year":"2013","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1666","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jix186","article-title":"Global Impact of Rotavirus Vaccination on Childhood Hospitalizations and Mortality From Diarrhea","volume":"215","author":"Burnett","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciw391","article-title":"A Prospective Longitudinal Cohort to Investigate the Effects of Early Life Giardiasis on Growth and All Cause Diarrhea","volume":"63","author":"Donowitz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis. Off. Publ. Infect. Dis. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e564","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(15)00151-5","article-title":"Pathogen-specific burdens of community diarrhoea in developing countries: A multisite birth cohort study (MAL-ED)","volume":"3","author":"Babji","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hajissa, K., Islam, M.A., Sanyang, A.M., and Mohamed, Z. (2022). Prevalence of intestinal protozoan parasites among school children in africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009971"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)60844-2","article-title":"Burden and aetiology of diarrhoeal disease in infants and young children in developing countries (the Global Enteric Multicenter Study, GEMS): A prospective, case-control study","volume":"382","author":"Kotloff","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S106","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac940","article-title":"Giardia Detection and Codetection With Other Enteric Pathogens in Young Children in the Vaccine Impact on Diarrhea in Africa (VIDA) Case-Control Study: 2015\u20132018","volume":"76","author":"Marcenac","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis. Off. Publ. Infect. Dis. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jix294","article-title":"Etiology of Severe Acute Watery Diarrhea in Children in the Global Rotavirus Surveillance Network Using Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction","volume":"216","author":"Operario","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1093\/tropej\/fmh105","article-title":"Diarrhea associated with Cryptosporidium parvum among young children of the Nile River Delta in Egypt","volume":"51","author":"Wierzba","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Trop. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2006.75.78","article-title":"Cryptosporidiosis: Prevalence, genotype analysis, and symptoms associated with infections in children in Kenya","volume":"75","author":"Gatei","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garzon, M., Pereira-da-Silva, L., Seixas, J., Papoila, A.L., and Alves, M. (2018). Subclinical Enteric Parasitic Infections and Growth Faltering in Infants in Sao Tome, Africa: A Birth Cohort Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15040688"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Bennett, J.E., Dolin, R., and Blaser, M.J. (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett\u2019s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, Elsevier\/Saunders. [8th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2021.08.007","article-title":"Taxonomy and molecular epidemiology of Cryptosporidium and Giardia\u2014A 50 year perspective (1971\u20132021)","volume":"51","author":"Ryan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e28","DOI":"10.1590\/s1678-9946201961028","article-title":"New insights into the detection and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium with emphasis in Brazilian studies: A review","volume":"61","author":"Cunha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fawpar.2017.09.002","article-title":"Molecular epidemiologic tools for waterborne pathogens Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis","volume":"8\u20139","author":"Xiao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Waterborne Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2011.10-0664","article-title":"Cryptosporidium meleagridis: Infectivity in healthy adult volunteers","volume":"85","author":"Chappell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"28463","article-title":"Possible zoonotic transmission of Cryptosporidium felis in a household","volume":"5","author":"Beser","year":"2015","journal-title":"Infect. Ecol. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-017-0447-0","article-title":"Bovine cryptosporidiosis: Impact, host-parasite interaction and control strategies","volume":"48","author":"Thomson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"394","article-title":"Cryptosporidium parvum (sp. nov.), a coccidium found in the small intestine of the common mouse","volume":"26","author":"Tyzzer","year":"1912","journal-title":"Arch. F\u00fcr Protistenkd."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1567","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1410.071273","article-title":"Cryptosporidium species and subtypes and clinical manifestations in children, Peru","volume":"14","author":"Cama","year":"2008","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00076-12","article-title":"Cryptosporidium pathogenicity and virulence","volume":"26","author":"Bouzid","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.4.3.325","article-title":"Cryptosporidiosis","volume":"4","author":"Current","year":"1991","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1007\/s12639-022-01510-5","article-title":"An update on Cryptosporidium biology and therapeutic avenues","volume":"46","author":"Dhal","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Parasit. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biotechadv.2006.08.003","article-title":"Molecular targets for detection and immunotherapy in Cryptosporidium parvum","volume":"25","author":"Lee","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Adv."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.apar.2019.07.002","article-title":"Molecular epidemiology of giardiasis from a veterinary perspective","volume":"106","author":"Ryan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00033-10","article-title":"Zoonotic potential and molecular epidemiology of Giardia species and giardiasis","volume":"24","author":"Feng","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01020-16","article-title":"Medical Parasitology Taxonomy Update: January 2012 to December 2015","volume":"55","author":"Simner","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2003.08.003","article-title":"Cryptosporidium and Giardia-zoonoses: Fact or fiction?","volume":"3","author":"Monis","year":"2003","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0001722","DOI":"10.1128\/aac.00017-22","article-title":"Repurposing the Kinase Inhibitor Mavelertinib for Giardiasis Therapy","volume":"66","author":"Michaels","year":"2022","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1010244","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.1010244","article-title":"Genomic comparisons confirm Giardia duodenalis sub-assemblage AII as a unique species","volume":"12","author":"Seabolt","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0002419","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00024-19","article-title":"Giardia duodenalis: Biology and Pathogenesis","volume":"34","author":"Adam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3449","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-013-3524-y","article-title":"Molecular typing of Giardia duodenalis isolates from German travellers","volume":"112","author":"Broglia","year":"2013","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2011.09.006","article-title":"Identification of a novel Assemblage B subgenotype and a zoonotic Assemblage C in human isolates of Giardia intestinalis in Egypt","volume":"60","author":"Soliman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Parasitol. Int."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2016013","article-title":"Giardia duodenalis genetic assemblages and hosts","volume":"23","author":"Heyworth","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1079\/095442200108728981","article-title":"Undernutrition, infection and immune function","volume":"13","author":"Calder","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nutr. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4438","DOI":"10.3390\/nu7064438","article-title":"Crosstalk between Zinc Status and Giardia Infection: A New Approach","volume":"7","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e758","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(18)30283-3","article-title":"Morbidity, mortality, and long-term consequences associated with diarrhoea from Cryptosporidium infection in children younger than 5 years: A meta-analyses study","volume":"6","author":"Khalil","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2111-y","article-title":"Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Africa: Current and future challenges","volume":"10","author":"Squire","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pires, S.M., Fischer-Walker, C.L., Lanata, C.F., Devleesschauwer, B., Hall, A.J., Kirk, M.D., Duarte, A.S., Black, R.E., and Angulo, F.J. (2015). Aetiology-Specific Estimates of the Global and Regional Incidence and Mortality of Diarrhoeal Diseases Commonly Transmitted through Food. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0142927"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sow, S.O., Muhsen, K., Nasrin, D., Blackwelder, W.C., Wu, Y., Farag, T.H., Panchalingam, S., Sur, D., Zaidi, A.K., and Faruque, A.S. (2016). The Burden of Cryptosporidium Diarrheal Disease among Children <24 Months of Age in Moderate\/High Mortality Regions of Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, Utilizing Data from the Global Enteric Multicenter Study (GEMS). PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004729"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e012540","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2023-012540","article-title":"Safe and effective treatments are needed for cryptosporidiosis, a truly neglected tropical disease","volume":"8","author":"Gilbert","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMJ Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hajare, S.T., Chekol, Y., and Chauhan, N.M. (2022). Assessment of prevalence of Giardia lamblia infection and its associated factors among government elementary school children from Sidama zone, SNNPR, Ethiopia. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0264812"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Motarjemi, Y. (2014). Foodborne Diseases: Overview of Biological Hazards and Foodborne Diseases, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"273","article-title":"The old and new therapeutic approaches to the treatment of giardiasis: Where are we?","volume":"3","author":"Busatti","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biologics"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199503303321304","article-title":"The infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum in healthy volunteers","volume":"332","author":"DuPont","year":"1995","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1086\/315033","article-title":"Virulence of three distinct Cryptosporidium parvum isolates for healthy adults","volume":"180","author":"Okhuysen","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2006.75.851","article-title":"Cryptosporidium hominis: Experimental challenge of healthy adults","volume":"75","author":"Chappell","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2178","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciad059","article-title":"Prospective Cohort Study of Cryptosporidium Infection and Shedding in Infants and Their Households","volume":"76","author":"Korpe","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.14.3.447-475.2001","article-title":"Biology of Giardia lamblia","volume":"14","author":"Adam","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Dunn, N., and Juergens, A.L. (2022). StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cit288","article-title":"Cryptosporidiosis Among Children in an Endemic Semiurban Community in Southern India: Does a Protected Drinking Water Source Decrease Infection?","volume":"57","author":"Sarkar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"886","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-103-6-886","article-title":"A waterborne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in normal hosts","volume":"103","author":"Winn","year":"1985","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-4758(97)01076-4","article-title":"Zoonotic transmission of Cryptosporidium parvum: Implications for water-borne cryptosporidiosis","volume":"13","author":"Graczyk","year":"1997","journal-title":"Parasitol. Today"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199407213310304","article-title":"A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply","volume":"331","author":"Hoxie","year":"1994","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.2174\/187152610793180821","article-title":"Giardiasis: The ever-present threat of a neglected disease","volume":"10","author":"Escobedo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Infect. Disord. Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-308X(08)60353-X","article-title":"Cryptosporidiosis in perspective","volume":"27","author":"Tzipori","year":"1988","journal-title":"Adv. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.5372\/1905-7415.1004.493","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors for cryptosporidiosis: A global, emerging, neglected zoonosis","volume":"10","author":"Bamaiyi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Asian Biomed."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1080\/1059924X.2022.2112417","article-title":"Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices of Finnish Dairy Farmers on Cryptosporidiosis","volume":"28","author":"Suolaniemi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Agromed."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Rumsey, P., and Waseem, M. (2022). StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2009.01.003","article-title":"Cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis in dogs and cats: Veterinary and public health importance","volume":"124","author":"Bowman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4199","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-021-07325-2","article-title":"Zoonotic giardiasis: An update","volume":"120","author":"Cai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1007\/s101420000028","article-title":"Characterization of a major sporozoite surface glycoprotein of Cryptosporidum parvum","volume":"1","author":"Winter","year":"2000","journal-title":"Funct. Integr. Genom."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, Z.H., Wang, L.Y., Wang, Y.X., Li, J., Wang, R.J., Sun, M.F., and Zhang, L.X. (2020). Cryptosporidium parvum gp40\/15 Is Associated with the Parasitophorous Vacuole Membrane and Is a Potential Vaccine Target. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8030363"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1016\/S1286-4579(02)01629-5","article-title":"Cryptosporidiosis: Biology, pathogenesis and disease","volume":"4","author":"Tzipori","year":"2002","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1723","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra013170","article-title":"Cryptosporidiosis","volume":"346","author":"Chen","year":"2002","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb.09.128","article-title":"Human immune responses in cryptosporidiosis","volume":"5","author":"Borad","year":"2010","journal-title":"Future Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S1674-8301(11)60001-8","article-title":"Cryptosporidiosis-an overview","volume":"25","author":"Leitch","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2459","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-199818000-00015","article-title":"A clinicopathologic analysis of AIDS-related cryptosporidiosis","volume":"12","author":"Lumadue","year":"1998","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1016\/S1286-4579(99)00246-4","article-title":"Caspase-dependent apoptosis during infection with Cryptosporidium parvum","volume":"1","author":"Ojcius","year":"1999","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1236","DOI":"10.1053\/gast.2000.19573","article-title":"Mannose-binding lectin is a component of innate mucosal defense against Cryptosporidium parvum in AIDS","volume":"119","author":"Kelly","year":"2000","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1086\/505396","article-title":"Serum mannose-binding lectin deficiency is associated with cryptosporidiosis in young Haitian children","volume":"43","author":"Kirkpatrick","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1540","DOI":"10.1086\/606013","article-title":"Deficient serum mannose-binding lectin levels and MBL2 polymorphisms increase the risk of single and recurrent Cryptosporidium infections in young children","volume":"200","author":"Carmolli","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113950","DOI":"10.3389\/fpara.2023.1113950","article-title":"Early immune and host cell responses to Cryptosporidium infection","volume":"2","author":"Mead","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1086\/506565","article-title":"Childhood cryptosporidiosis is associated with a persistent systemic inflammatory response","volume":"43","author":"Kirkpatrick","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1159\/000064756","article-title":"Fundamental mechanisms of growth failure in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"58","author":"Ballinger","year":"2002","journal-title":"Horm. Res. Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2486","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2017.07.009","article-title":"Cysteine Protease-Dependent Mucous Disruptions and Differential Mucin Gene Expression in Giardia duodenalis Infection","volume":"187","author":"Amat","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1018554408558","article-title":"Glycosidases in mucin-dwelling protozoans","volume":"14","author":"Connaris","year":"1997","journal-title":"Glycoconj. J."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcb.2020.08.004","article-title":"Tight Junction Structure and Function Revisited","volume":"30","author":"Otani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817468","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.817468","article-title":"Mucosal Defense Against Giardia at the Intestinal Epithelial Cell Interface","volume":"13","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"G574","article-title":"Giardia duodenalis induces paracellular bacterial translocation and causes postinfectious visceral hypersensitivity","volume":"310","author":"Halliez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00948-16","article-title":"Giardia Alters Commensal Microbial Diversity throughout the Murine Gut","volume":"85","author":"Barash","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5067","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.65.12.5067-5073.1997","article-title":"Cryptosporidium parvum infection of human intestinal epithelial cells induces the polarized secretion of C-X-C chemokines","volume":"65","author":"Laurent","year":"1997","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcdb.2012.03.014","article-title":"Intestinal redox biology and oxidative stress","volume":"23","author":"Circu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Semin. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1111\/prd.12083","article-title":"Basic biology and role of interleukin-17 in immunity and inflammation","volume":"69","author":"Zenobia","year":"2015","journal-title":"Periodontol. 2000"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618106","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.618106","article-title":"Giardia spp. and the Gut Microbiota: Dangerous Liaisons","volume":"11","author":"Fekete","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8974","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v19.i47.8974","article-title":"Extra-intestinal and long term consequences of Giardia duodenalis infections","volume":"19","author":"Halliez","year":"2013","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol. WJG"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.05038-11","article-title":"Enteric protozoa in the developed world: A public health perspective","volume":"25","author":"Fletcher","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(14)70772-8","article-title":"A review of the global burden, novel diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccine targets for Cryptosporidium","volume":"15","author":"Checkley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919424","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.919424","article-title":"Mitochondrial Function and Microbial Metabolites as Central Regulators of Intestinal Immune Responses and Cancer","volume":"13","author":"Jarke","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciy153","article-title":"Gut Microbiome Composition Predicts Infection Risk During Chemotherapy in Children With Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia","volume":"67","author":"Hakim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis. Off. Publ. Infect. Dis. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4635","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-18476-8","article-title":"A predictive index for health status using species-level gut microbiome profiling","volume":"11","author":"Gupta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-308X(05)59002-X","article-title":"Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis","volume":"59","author":"Thompson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Adv. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2036.2011.04781.x","article-title":"Review article: The aetiology, investigation and management of diarrhoea in the HIV-positive patient","volume":"34","author":"Feasey","year":"2011","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e3283437e88","article-title":"Cryptosporidiosis in patients with HIV\/AIDS","volume":"25","author":"Shaffie","year":"2011","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0b013e328357e569","article-title":"Burden of disease from cryptosporidiosis","volume":"25","author":"Shirley","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e6200","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.6200","article-title":"Intestinal parasitic infection alters bacterial gut microbiota in children","volume":"7","author":"Alzate","year":"2019","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_103","first-page":"419","article-title":"Prevalence of Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium species infections among children and cattle in North Shewa Zone, Ethiopia","volume":"13","author":"Wegayehu","year":"2013","journal-title":"MC Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115698","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2020.115698","article-title":"Co-infection risk assessment of Giardia and Cryptosporidium with HIV considering synergistic effects and age sensitivity using disability-adjusted life years","volume":"175","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.2147\/HIV.S215417","article-title":"Cryptosporidiosis And Other Intestinal Parasitic Infections And Concomitant Threats Among HIV-Infected Children In Southern Ethiopia Receiving First-Line Antiretroviral Therapy","volume":"11","author":"Gebre","year":"2019","journal-title":"HIV\/AIDS Res. Palliat. Care"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S271","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cis762","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between Giardia lamblia and endemic pediatric diarrhea in developing countries","volume":"55","author":"Muhsen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis. Off. Publ. Infect. Dis. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1021\/acsinfecdis.0c00919","article-title":"A Curious Case for Development of Kinase Inhibitors as Antigiardiasis Treatments Using Advanced Drug Techniques","volume":"7","author":"Michaels","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1700824","article-title":"Giardia Infection of the Small Intestine Induces Chronic Colitis in Genetically Susceptible Hosts","volume":"201","author":"Dann","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1064","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2018.01.022","article-title":"Prevalence of Irritable Bowel Syndrome and Chronic Fatigue 10 Years After Giardia Infection","volume":"16","author":"Litleskare","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/S1081-1206(10)62823-2","article-title":"Association between giardiasis and allergy","volume":"81","author":"Hagel","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1093\/jpids\/piw082","article-title":"Determinants and Impact of Giardia Infection in the First 2 Years of Life in the MAL-ED Birth Cohort","volume":"6","author":"Rogawski","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. Soc."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/156.6.974","article-title":"Experimental human infections with Giardia lamblia","volume":"156","author":"Nash","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(01)00183-7","article-title":"Human giardiasis: Genotype linked differences in clinical symptomatology","volume":"31","author":"Homan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-019-3692-4","article-title":"Epidemiological distribution of genotypes of Giardia duodenalis in humans in Spain","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3673","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.70.7.3673-3680.2002","article-title":"Strain-dependent induction of enterocyte apoptosis by Giardia lamblia disrupts epithelial barrier function in a caspase-3-dependent manner","volume":"70","author":"Chin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00219-19","article-title":"Identification of Conserved Candidate Vaccine Antigens in the Surface Proteome of Giardia lamblia","volume":"87","author":"Davids","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.13.1.35","article-title":"Immune response to Giardia duodenalis","volume":"13","author":"Faubert","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.38.1.393-394.2000","article-title":"Evaluation of a combination rapid immunoassay for detection of Giardia and Cryptosporidium antigens","volume":"38","author":"Chan","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.41.1.209-212.2003","article-title":"Commercial assay for detection of Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum antigens in human fecal specimens by rapid solid-phase qualitative immunochromatography","volume":"41","author":"Garcia","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_120","first-page":"3","article-title":"Giardia lamblia infection: Review of current diagnostic strategies","volume":"12","author":"Hooshyar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Hepatol. Bed Bench"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.4103\/tp.TP_34_17","article-title":"Laboratory diagnosis of cryptosporidiosis","volume":"8","author":"Khurana","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trop. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_122","first-page":"1897","article-title":"Giardia\/Cryptosporidium QUIK CHEK assay is more specific than quantitative polymerase chain reaction for rapid point-of-care diagnosis of cryptosporidiosis in infants in Bangladesh","volume":"67","author":"Kabir","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kabir, M., Alam, M., Nayak, U., Arju, T., Hossain, B., Tarannum, R., Khatun, A., White, J.A., Ma, J.N.Z., and Haque, R. (2021). Nonsterile immunity to cryptosporidiosis in infants is associated with mucosal IgA against the sporozoite and protection from malnutrition. PLoS Pathog., 17.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.03.04.433864"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000553","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgast-2020-000553","article-title":"Accuracy and comparison of two rapid multiplex PCR tests for gastroenteritis pathogens: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"8","author":"Chang","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e326","DOI":"10.5001\/omj.2021.44","article-title":"Disseminated Cryptosporidiosis in an Infant with Non-HIV Pediatric Immunodeficiency: First Case Report from Oman","volume":"36","author":"Farsi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oman Med. J."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1086\/428839","article-title":"Nitazoxanide: A new thiazolide antiparasitic agent","volume":"40","author":"Fox","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis. Off. Publ. Infect. Dis. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1007\/s40475-015-0056-9","article-title":"Treatment of Cryptosporidium: What We Know, Gaps, and the Way Forward","volume":"2","author":"Sparks","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Trop. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1086\/321008","article-title":"Treatment of diarrhea caused by Cryptosporidium parvum: A prospective randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of Nitazoxanide","volume":"184","author":"Rossignol","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1375","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)11401-2","article-title":"Effect of nitazoxanide on morbidity and mortality in Zambian children with cryptosporidiosis: A randomised controlled trial","volume":"360","author":"Amadi","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amadi, B., Mwiya, M., Sianongo, S., Payne, L., Watuka, A., Katubulushi, M., and Kelly, P. (2009). High dose prolonged treatment with nitazoxanide is not effective for cryptosporidiosis in HIV positive Zambian children: A randomised controlled trial. BMC Infect. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-9-195"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mrfmmm.2014.05.005","article-title":"A functional perspective of nitazoxanide as a potential anticancer drug","volume":"768","author":"Ehrisman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mutat. Res. Mol. Mech. Mutagen."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2019.07.003","article-title":"The FDA-Approved Oral Drug Nitazoxanide Amplifies Host Antiviral Responses and Inhibits Ebola Virus","volume":"19","author":"Jasenosky","year":"2019","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e45","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cix669","article-title":"2017 Infectious Diseases Society of America Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Infectious Diarrhea","volume":"65","author":"Shane","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis. Off. Publ. Infect. Dis. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.4103\/0253-7613.81495","article-title":"Role of zinc in pediatric diarrhea","volume":"43","author":"Bajait","year":"2011","journal-title":"Indian J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, S.T., Grossman, D.C., and Cummings, P. (2007). Loperamide therapy for acute diarrhea in children: Systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med., 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0040098"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2015.04.019","article-title":"Increased incidence of nitroimidazole-refractory giardiasis at the Hospital for Tropical Diseases, London: 2008\u20132013","volume":"21","author":"Nabarro","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1016\/S0889-8553(05)70260-0","article-title":"Giardiasis","volume":"25","author":"Farthing","year":"1996","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0b013e32834ad401","article-title":"New approaches to the treatment of giardiasis","volume":"24","author":"Eckmann","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1921","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S141468","article-title":"Treatment-refractory giardiasis: Challenges and solutions","volume":"11","author":"Lalle","year":"2018","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1007\/s40475-015-0051-1","article-title":"Drug Resistance in the Microaerophilic Parasite Giardia lamblia","volume":"2","author":"Leitsch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Trop. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.14.1.114-128.2001","article-title":"Treatment of giardiasis","volume":"14","author":"Gardner","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.4103\/0975-7406.67002","article-title":"Structural modifications of quinoline-based antimalarial agents: Recent developments","volume":"2","author":"Bawa","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Bioallied Sci."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S16","DOI":"10.1086\/647939","article-title":"Metronidazole is still the drug of choice for treatment of anaerobic infections","volume":"50","author":"Lofmark","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis. Off. Publ. Infect. Dis. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13330","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.0c00910","article-title":"Anti-Giardia Drug Discovery: Current Status and Gut Feelings","volume":"63","author":"Riches","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ibrahim, A.A., El-Housseiny, G.S., Aboshanab, K.M., Yassien, M.A., and Hassouna, N.A. (2019). Paromomycin production from Streptomyces rimosus NRRL 2455: Statistical optimization and new synergistic antibiotic combinations against multidrug resistant pathogens. BMC Microbiol., 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-019-1390-1"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/S0377-1237(11)80020-1","article-title":"Nitazoxanide A Broad Spectrum Antimicrobial","volume":"67","author":"Singh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Med. J. Armed Forces India"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2011.11.007","article-title":"Nitazoxanide for the empiric treatment of pediatric infectious diarrhea","volume":"106","author":"Rossignol","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1165","DOI":"10.1002\/cpt.1078","article-title":"Dosing of Ceftriaxone and Metronidazole for Children With Severe Acute Malnutrition","volume":"104","author":"Standing","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.27.2.227","article-title":"Single-Dose Tinidazole for the Treatment of Giardiasis","volume":"27","author":"Speelman","year":"1985","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1179\/136485908X267894","article-title":"The treatment of giardiasis in children: Single-dose tinidazole compared with 3 days of nitazoxanide","volume":"102","author":"Escobedo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.2165\/00003495-199651040-00007","article-title":"Secnidazole. A review of its antimicrobial activity, pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic use in the management of protozoal infections and bacterial vaginosis","volume":"51","author":"Gillis","year":"1996","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000000668","article-title":"Giardiasis treatment: An update with a focus on refractory disease","volume":"33","author":"Morch","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perez, F., Vallet, T., Bravo, Z., Callahan, K., and Ruiz, F. (2021). Acceptability of Mebendazole Chewable Tablet in Children Aged 2 to 4 Years in Peru. Pharmaceutics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14010027"}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/11\/9\/2323\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:51:30Z","timestamp":1760129490000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/11\/9\/2323"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,15]]},"references-count":153,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms11092323"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms11092323","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,15]]}}}