{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T00:58:18Z","timestamp":1791853098407,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,4]],"date-time":"2024-01-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1704326400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Hessian State Ministry of Higher Education, Research, and the Arts (HMWK)"},{"name":"Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology IME, Giessen"},{"name":"Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft central fund (Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft zur F\u00f6rderung der angewandten Forschung e.V.)"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Crayfish plague is a devastating disease of European freshwater crayfish and is caused by the oomycete Aphanomyces astaci (Ap. astaci), believed to have been introduced to Europe around 1860. All European species of freshwater crayfish are susceptible to the disease, including the white-clawed crayfish Austropotamobius pallipes. Ap. astaci is primarily spread by North American crayfish species and can also disperse rapidly through contaminated wet gear moved between water bodies. This spread, coupled with competition from non-indigenous crayfish, has drastically reduced and fragmented native crayfish populations across Europe. Remarkably, the island of Ireland remained free from the crayfish plague pathogen for over 100 years, providing a refuge for A. pallipes. However, this changed in 1987 when a mass mortality event was linked to the pathogen, marking its introduction to the region. Fortunately, crayfish plague was not detected again in Ireland until 2015 when a molecular analysis linked a mass mortality event in the Erne catchment to Ap. astaci. Since then, the pathogen has appeared across the island. Between 2015 and 2023, Ap. astaci was detected in 18 water catchments, revealing multiple genotypes. Intriguingly, the pathogen in Ireland is present without its natural host species. The uneven distribution of various genetic lineages strongly suggests the human-mediated transport of zoospores via contaminated water equipment as a primary cause of spread. This review details the timeline of these events, Ap. astaci\u2019s introduction into Ireland, and its rapid spread. As well, this review references the genotypes that have been determined, and discusses the issue of non-indigenous crayfish species in Ireland and management efforts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12010102","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,4]],"date-time":"2024-01-04T04:05:38Z","timestamp":1704341138000},"page":"102","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["The Crayfish Plague Pathogen Aphanomyces astaci in Ireland"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9086-917X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniel J.","family":"Brady","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Branch for Bioresources, Ohlebergsweg 12, 35392 Gie\u00dfen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rossa","family":"Meade","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Independent Researcher, Bundoran, Donegal, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1590-5043","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julian D.","family":"Reynolds","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Independent Researcher, A94 R8D9 Dublin City, Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8276-4968","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andreas","family":"Vilcinskas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), Branch for Bioresources, Ohlebergsweg 12, 35392 Gie\u00dfen, Germany"},{"name":"Institute for Insect Biotechnology, Justus Liebig University Gie\u00dfen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, 35392 Gie\u00dfen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kathrin","family":"Theissinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Insect Biotechnology, Justus Liebig University Gie\u00dfen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, 35392 Gie\u00dfen, Germany"},{"name":"LOEWE Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics, Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Georg-Voigt-Str. 14-16, 60325 Frankfurt Am Main, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.5869\/fc.2021.v26-2.139","article-title":"Is Aphanomyces astaci Loosing its Stamina: A Latent Crayfish Plague Disease Agent from Lake Venesj\u00e4rvi, Finland","volume":"26","author":"Jussila","year":"2021","journal-title":"Freshw. Crayfish"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648495","DOI":"10.3389\/fevo.2021.648495","article-title":"Money kills native ecosystems: European crayfish as an example","volume":"9","author":"Jussila","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"334","article-title":"Sulla malattia dei gamberi","volume":"2","author":"Cornalia","year":"1860","journal-title":"Atti Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"202","article-title":"Resistance to the crayfish plague in some American, Japanese and European crayfishes","volume":"49","author":"Unestam","year":"1969","journal-title":"Rep. Inst. Freshw. Res. Drottningholm"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"77","article-title":"The host-parasite relationship between freshwater crayfish and the crayfish disease fungus Aphanomyces astaci: Responses to infection by a susceptible and a resistant species","volume":"60","author":"Unestam","year":"1970","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Rezinciuc, S., Sandoval-Sierra, J.V., Oidtmann, B., and Di\u00e9guez-Uribeondo, J. (2015). Freshwater Crayfish, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1462-5822.2003.00282.x","article-title":"Host prophenoloxidase expression in freshwater crayfish is linked to increased resistance to the crayfish plague fungus, Aphanomyces astaci","volume":"5","author":"Cerenius","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cell. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fbr.2021.08.001","article-title":"Pathogenicity of animal and plant parasitic Aphanomyces spp. and their economic impact on aquaculture and agriculture","volume":"40","author":"Becking","year":"2022","journal-title":"Fungal Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bo\u0161tjan\u010di\u0107, L.L., Francesconi, C., Rutz, C., Hoffbeck, L., Poidevin, L., Kress, A., Jussila, J., Makkonen, J., Feldmeyer, B., and B\u00e1lint, M. (2022). Host-pathogen coevolution drives innate immune response to Aphanomyces astaci infection in freshwater crayfish: Transcriptomic evidence. BMC Genom., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-022-08571-z"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2012.05.008","article-title":"Monitoring the spore dynamics of Aphanomyces astaci in the ambient water of latent carrier crayfish","volume":"160","author":"Strand","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Souty-Grosset, C., Haffner, P., Reynolds, J.D., Noel, P.Y., and Holdich, D.M. (2006). Atlas of crayfish in Europe, Mus\u00e9um National d\u2019Histoire Naturelle."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.5869\/fc.2020.v25-1.077","article-title":"The spatial distribution of Aphanomyces astaci genotypes across Europe: Introducing the first data from Ukraine","volume":"25","author":"Ungureanu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Freshw. Crayfish."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.3354\/dao02547","article-title":"Differing virulence of Aphanomyces astaci isolates and elevated resistance of noble crayfish Astacus astacus against crayfish plague","volume":"102","author":"Makkonen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Dis. Aquat. Org."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Kelly-Quinn, M., and Reynolds, J.D. (2020). Ireland\u2019s Rivers, University College Dublin Press."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Matthews, M.A., and Reynolds, J.D. (1995). Biology and Environment: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Royal Irish Academy."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3207(88)90059-6","article-title":"Crayfish extinctions and crayfish plague in central Ireland","volume":"45","author":"Reynolds","year":"1988","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"(2023, September 24). Inland Fisheries Ireland, Press Release. Investigation Underway into Cause of Crayfish Plague on River Bruskey, near Ballinagh, Co Cavan. Available online: https:\/\/tinyurl.com\/ycsn72fr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1051\/kmae\/2022011","article-title":"Investigation of the first recent crayfish plague outbreak in Ireland and its subsequent spread in the Bruskey River and surrounding areas","volume":"423","author":"Mirimin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Knowl. Manag. Aquat. Ecosyst."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Gammell, M., McFarlane, A., Brady, D., O\u2019Brien, J., Mirimin, L., Graham, C., Minto, C., and O\u2019Connor, I. (2018). White-Clawed Crayfish Austropotamobius Pallipes Survey in Designated SACs in 2017, National Parks & Wildlife Service."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"White, S., Griffin, B., Swords, F., O\u2019Toole, C., Morrissey, T., Cheslett, D., Geary, M., Brenan, A., Viljamaa-Dirks, S., and Panteleit, J. (2020). The National Crayfish Plague Surveillance Program, Ireland\u20142018\u20132019, Marine Institute."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Swords, F., Griffin, B., White, S., Cheslett, D., Geary, M., Brenan, A., Coakley, C., and Nelson, B. The National Crayfish Plague Surveillance Program, Ireland\u20142020\u20132021, Marine Institute."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2008.12.022","article-title":"A quantitative TaqMan\u00ae MGB real-time polymerase chain reaction based assay for detection of the causative agent of crayfish plague Aphanomyces astaci","volume":"137","author":"Knutsen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.3391\/ai.2014.9.2.09","article-title":"Invasive Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis) transmits crayfish plague pathogen (Aphanomyces astaci)","volume":"9","author":"Schrimpf","year":"2014","journal-title":"Aquat. Invasions"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jip.2014.07.004","article-title":"Resistance to the crayfish plague pathogen, Aphanomyces astaci, in two freshwater shrimps","volume":"121","author":"Svoboda","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Invertebr. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jip.2014.06.002","article-title":"Survey of the crayfish plague pathogen presence in the Netherlands reveals a new Aphanomyces astaci carrier","volume":"120","author":"Tilmans","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Invertebr. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1434","DOI":"10.1002\/aqc.2970","article-title":"Procambarus clarkii (Girard, 1852) and crayfish plague as new threats for biodiversity in Indonesia","volume":"28","author":"Putra","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aquat. Conserv. Mar. Freshw."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"303","article-title":"First Irish record of the Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis (Milne-Edwards, 1854) (Decapoda: Crustacea)","volume":"28","author":"Minchin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ir. Nat. J."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.3391\/ai.2013.8.3.09","article-title":"Two Asian fresh water shrimp species found in a thermally polluted stream system in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany","volume":"8","author":"Klotz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Aquat. Invasions"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Rodgers, M. (1988). The Biology of Crayfish Plague (Aphanomyces astaci: Schikora) in Great Britain. [Ph.D. Dissertation, London Guildhall University]."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0044-8486(94)90243-7","article-title":"Analysis of genetic diversity in the crayfish plague fungus, Aphanomyces astaci, by random amplification of polymorphic DNA","volume":"126","author":"Huang","year":"1994","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jip.2018.06.002","article-title":"New genotyping method for the causative agent of crayfish plague (Aphanomyces astaci) based on whole genome data","volume":"156","author":"Minardi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Invertebr. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597585","DOI":"10.3389\/fevo.2021.597585","article-title":"Real-Time PCR assays for rapid identification of common Aphanomyces astaci genotypes","volume":"9","author":"Curini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2014.02.020","article-title":"Microsatellite markers for direct genotyping of the crayfish plague pathogen Aphanomyces astaci (Oomycetes) from infected host tissues","volume":"170","author":"Grandjean","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182018000227","article-title":"MtDNA allows the sensitive detection and haplotyping of the crayfish plague disease agent Aphanomyces astaci showing clues about its origin and migration","volume":"145","author":"Makkonen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1002\/edn3.29","article-title":"Reporting the limits of detection and quantification for environmental DNA assays","volume":"2","author":"Klymus","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. DNA"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Crandall, K.A., and Buhay, J.E. (2008). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment, Springer."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1007\/s10750-020-04479-5","article-title":"Trophic niches of three sympatric invasive crayfish of EU concern","volume":"848","author":"Ruokonen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hydrobiologia"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"394","article-title":"A review of the ever increasing threat to European crayfish from non-indigenous crayfish species","volume":"11","author":"Holdich","year":"2009","journal-title":"Knowl. Manag. Aquat. Ecosyst."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2023, September 12). European Union (Invasive Alien Species) (Freshwater Crayfish) Regulations 2018 in, S.I. No. 354 of 2018. Available online: https:\/\/www.irishstatutebook.ie\/eli\/2018\/si\/354\/made\/en\/print."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"14","article-title":"First recorded population of the Common Yabby (Cherax destructor Clark) (Decapoda, Parastacidae) in the wild in Ireland","volume":"39","author":"Sweeney","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ir. Nat. J."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1111\/jfd.12472","article-title":"Hosts and transmission of the crayfish plague pathogen Aphanomyces astaci: A review","volume":"40","author":"Svoboda","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Fish Dis."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.3391\/ai.2016.11.4.10","article-title":"May Cherax destructor contribute to Aphanomyces astaci spread in Central Europe?","volume":"11","author":"Petrusek","year":"2016","journal-title":"Aquat. Invasions"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1007\/s10530-014-0795-x","article-title":"Trade of ornamental crayfish in Europe as a possible introduction pathway for important crustacean diseases: Crayfish plague and white spot syndrome","volume":"17","author":"Chucholl","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biol. Invasions"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.3391\/ai.2017.12.1.08","article-title":"Investigation of ornamental crayfish reveals new carrier species of the crayfish plague pathogen (Aphanomyces astaci)","volume":"12","author":"Panteleit","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aquat. Invasions"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Faulkes, Z. (2015). A bomb set to drop: Parthenogenetic Marmorkrebs for sale in Ireland, a European location without non-indigenous crayfish. Manag. Biol. Invasions, 6.","DOI":"10.3391\/mbi.2015.6.1.09"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1353\/bae.2017.0017","article-title":"Slipping past the barricades: The illegal trade of pet crayfish in Ireland","volume":"117","author":"Faulkes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biol. Environ. PRIA"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/s10530-012-0273-2","article-title":"Invaders for sale: Trade and determinants of introduction of ornamental freshwater crayfish","volume":"15","author":"Chucholl","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biol. Invasions"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Brazier, B. (2023, September 01). Off the Scale. White-Clawed Crayfish & Crayfish Plague, Off the Scale Magazine, November 2017. Available online: https:\/\/www.offthescaleangling.ie\/the-science-bit\/crayfish-plague\/."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Brazier, B. (2023, September 01). Off the Scale. First Crayfish Plague Outbreak of 2019. Off the Scale Magazine, 21 May 2019. Available online: https:\/\/www.offthescaleangling.ie\/news\/maigue-crayfish\/."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Invasive Species Ireland (2023, November 10). Check, Clean, Dry. Ireland, I.S.N. Check Clean Dry Resources. Available online: https:\/\/invasives.ie\/biosecurity\/check-clean-dry\/56."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Invasive Species Northern Ireland (2023, November 11). Check, Clean, Dry. Available online: https:\/\/invasivespeciesni.co.uk\/what-can-i-do\/check-clean-dry\/."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Stephens, F.J. (2004). Aquatic Animal Health Subprogram: Crayfish Plague-Disease Strategy Manual, Fisheries Research and Development Corporation & Murdoch University."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1007\/s11160-020-09606-y","article-title":"A review of the use of physical barriers to stop the spread of non-indigenous crayfish species","volume":"30","author":"Krieg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. Fish Biol. Fish."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1080\/03949370.2014.897652","article-title":"Status and recovery of indigenous crayfish populations after recent crayfish plague outbreaks in the Czech Republic","volume":"26","author":"Beran","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ethol Ecol Evol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mart\u00edn-Torrijos, L., Campos Llach, M., Pou-Rovira, Q., and Di\u00e9guez-Uribeondo, J. (2017). Resistance to the crayfish plague, Aphanomyces astaci (Oomycota) in the endangered freshwater crayfish species, Austropotamobius pallipes. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0181226"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.3354\/dao02567","article-title":"Aphanomyces astaci in wild crayfish populations in Slovenia: First report of persistent infection in a stone crayfish Austropotamobius torrentium population","volume":"103","author":"Vrezec","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dis. Aquat. Org."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2089","DOI":"10.1007\/s10531-020-01980-0","article-title":"Applications of environmental DNA (eDNA) in ecology and conservation: Opportunities, challenges and prospects","volume":"29","author":"Beng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biodivers. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1111\/fwb.13081","article-title":"Environmental DNA detects a rare large river crayfish but with little relation to local abundance","volume":"63","author":"Rice","year":"2018","journal-title":"Freshw. Biol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e9333","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.9333","article-title":"No evidence that crayfish carcasses produce detectable environmental DNA (eDNA) in a stream enclosure experiment","volume":"8","author":"Curtis","year":"2020","journal-title":"PeerJ"}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/12\/1\/102\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:39:49Z","timestamp":1760103589000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/12\/1\/102"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,4]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms12010102"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms12010102","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,4]]}}}