{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T23:56:29Z","timestamp":1790985389113,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,24]],"date-time":"2024-01-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1706054400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"BBSRC New Investigator Award","award":["BB\/K009443\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BB\/K009443\/1"]}]},{"name":"BBSRC New Investigator Award","award":["KTP901108146086"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KTP901108146086"]}]},{"name":"BBSRC New Investigator Award","award":["MR\/R005974\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MR\/R005974\/1"]}]},{"name":"BBSRC New Investigator Award","award":["BB\/W016133\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BB\/W016133\/1"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE), Malaysia","award":["BB\/K009443\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BB\/K009443\/1"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE), Malaysia","award":["KTP901108146086"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KTP901108146086"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE), Malaysia","award":["MR\/R005974\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MR\/R005974\/1"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE), Malaysia","award":["BB\/W016133\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BB\/W016133\/1"]}]},{"name":"GCRF Networks in Vaccines Research and Development","award":["BB\/K009443\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BB\/K009443\/1"]}]},{"name":"GCRF Networks in Vaccines Research and Development","award":["KTP901108146086"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KTP901108146086"]}]},{"name":"GCRF Networks in Vaccines Research and Development","award":["MR\/R005974\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MR\/R005974\/1"]}]},{"name":"GCRF Networks in Vaccines Research and Development","award":["BB\/W016133\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BB\/W016133\/1"]}]},{"name":"BBSRC","award":["BB\/K009443\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BB\/K009443\/1"]}]},{"name":"BBSRC","award":["KTP901108146086"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KTP901108146086"]}]},{"name":"BBSRC","award":["MR\/R005974\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MR\/R005974\/1"]}]},{"name":"BBSRC","award":["BB\/W016133\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BB\/W016133\/1"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Leptospirosis is a zoonotic bacterial disease affecting mammalian species worldwide. Cattle are a major susceptible host; infection with pathogenic Leptospira spp. represents a public health risk and results in reproductive failure and reduced milk yield, causing economic losses. The characterisation of outer membrane proteins (OMPs) from disease-causing bacteria dissects pathogenesis and underpins vaccine development. As most leptospire pathogenesis research has focused on Leptospira interrogans, this study aimed to characterise novel OMPs from another important genomospecies, Leptospira borgpetersenii, which has global distribution and is relevant to bovine and human diseases. Several putative L. borgpetersenii OMPs were recombinantly expressed, refolded and purified, and evaluated for function and immunogenicity. Two of these unique, putative OMPs (rLBL0972 and rLBL2618) bound to immobilised fibronectin, laminin and fibrinogen, which, together with structural and functional data, supports their classification as leptospiral adhesins. A third putative OMP (rLBL0375), did not exhibit saturable adhesion ability but, together with rLBL0972 and the included control, OmpL1, demonstrated significant cattle milk IgG antibody reactivity from infected cows. To dissect leptospire host\u2013pathogen interactions further, we expressed alleles of OmpL1 and a novel multi-specific adhesin, rLBL2618, from a variety of genomospecies and surveyed their adhesion ability, with both proteins exhibiting divergences in extracellular matrix component binding specificity across synthesised orthologs. We also observed functional redundancy across different L. borgspetersenii OMPs which, together with diversity in function across genomospecies orthologs, delineates multiple levels of plasticity in adhesion that is potentially driven by immune selection and host adaptation. These data identify novel leptospiral proteins which should be further evaluated as vaccine and\/or diagnostic candidates. Moreover, functional redundancy across leptospire surface proteins together with identified adhesion divergence across genomospecies further dissect the complex host\u2013pathogen interactions of a genus responsible for substantial global disease burden.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12020245","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,24]],"date-time":"2024-01-24T07:42:16Z","timestamp":1706082136000},"page":"245","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Characterisation of Putative Outer Membrane Proteins from Leptospira borgpetersenii Serovar Hardjo-Bovis Identifies Novel Adhesins and Diversity in Adhesion across Genomospecies Orthologs"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Intan Noor Aina","family":"Kamaruzaman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infection Biology and Microbiomes, Institute of Infection, Veterinary & Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Chester High Road, Neston CH64 7TE, UK"},{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Locked Bag 36, Kota Bharu 16100, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gareth James","family":"Staton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infection Biology and Microbiomes, Institute of Infection, Veterinary & Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Chester High Road, Neston CH64 7TE, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stuart","family":"Ainsworth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infection Biology and Microbiomes, Institute of Infection, Veterinary & Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Chester High Road, Neston CH64 7TE, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stuart D.","family":"Carter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infection Biology and Microbiomes, Institute of Infection, Veterinary & Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Chester High Road, Neston CH64 7TE, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2950-1007","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicholas James","family":"Evans","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infection Biology and Microbiomes, Institute of Infection, Veterinary & Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Chester High Road, Neston CH64 7TE, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens3020280","article-title":"Leptospiral Pathogenomics","volume":"3","author":"Lehmann","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Torgerson, P.R., Hagan, J.E., Costa, F., Calcagno, J., Kane, M., Martinez-Silveira, M.S., Goris, M.G.A., Stein, C., Ko, A.I., and Abela-Ridder, B. (2015). Global Burden of Leptospirosis: Estimated in Terms of Disability Adjusted Life Years. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004122"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fouts, D.E., Matthias, M.A., Adhikarla, H., Adler, B., Amorim-Santos, L., Berg, D.E., Bulach, D., Buschiazzo, A., Chang, Y.-F., and Galloway, R.L. (2016). What Makes a Bacterial Species Pathogenic?: Comparative Genomic Analysis of the Genus Leptospira. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004403"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20020","DOI":"10.1038\/srep20020","article-title":"Whole genome sequencing revealed host adaptation-focused genomic plasticity of pathogenic Leptospira","volume":"6","author":"Xu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022029999003684","article-title":"Estimating the costs associated with endemic diseases of dairy cattle","volume":"66","author":"Bennett","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Dairy Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2017.03.021","article-title":"Control of bovine leptospirosis: Aspects for consideration in a tropical environment","volume":"112","author":"Martins","year":"2017","journal-title":"Res. Veter. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2006.04.016","article-title":"Reproductive losses caused by bovine viral diarrhea virus and leptospirosis","volume":"66","author":"Grooms","year":"2006","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1565","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-010-9607-1","article-title":"Herd- and animal-level risk factors for bovine leptospirosis in Tanga region of Tanzania","volume":"42","author":"Schoonman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2001.62.995","article-title":"Use of a monovalent leptospiral vaccine to prevent renal colonization and urinary shedding in cattle exposed to Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar hardjo","volume":"62","author":"Bolin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Veter. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3109\/1040841X.2013.787387","article-title":"Pathogenic, diagnostic and vaccine potential of leptospiral outer membrane proteins (OMPs)","volume":"41","author":"Raja","year":"2015","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3679","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00474-12","article-title":"OmpL1 Is an Extracellular Matrix- and Plasminogen-Interacting Protein of Leptospira spp.","volume":"80","author":"Fernandes","year":"2012","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pinne, M., Choy, H.A., and Haake, D.A. (2010). The OmpL37 surface-exposed protein is expressed by pathogenic Leptospira during infection and binds skin and vascular elastin. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000815"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3174","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.63.8.3174-3181.1995","article-title":"The rare outer membrane protein, OmpL1, of pathogenic Leptospira species is a heat-modifiable porin","volume":"63","author":"Shang","year":"1995","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14560","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0603979103","article-title":"Genome reduction in Leptospira borgpetersenii reflects limited transmission potential","volume":"103","author":"Bulach","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/S1369-5274(00)00119-3","article-title":"Reverse vaccinology","volume":"3","author":"Rappuoli","year":"2000","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"820","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(99)80012-9","article-title":"Urban epidemic of severe leptospirosis in Brazil. Salvador Leptospirosis Study Group","volume":"354","author":"Ko","year":"1999","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00050-20","article-title":"Putative \u03b2-Barrel Outer Membrane Proteins of the Bovine Digital Dermatitis-Associated Treponemes: Identification, Functional Characterization, and Immunogenicity","volume":"88","author":"Staton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1038\/nmeth.1701","article-title":"SignalP 4.0: Discriminating signal peptides from transmembrane regions","volume":"8","author":"Petersen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Methods"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W400","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkh417","article-title":"PRED-TMBB: A web server for predicting the topology of -barrel outer membrane proteins","volume":"32","author":"Bagos","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W394","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkh351","article-title":"BOMP: A program to predict integral -barrel outer membrane proteins encoded within genomes of Gram-negative bacteria","volume":"32","author":"Berven","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"186","article-title":"Finding beta-barrel outer membrane proteins with a Markov chain model","volume":"2","author":"Bagos","year":"2004","journal-title":"WSEAS Trans. Biol. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1575","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/30.7.1575","article-title":"An efficient algorithm for large-scale detection of protein families","volume":"30","author":"Enright","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2836(05)80360-2","article-title":"Basic local alignment search tool","volume":"215","author":"Altschul","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/bti028","article-title":"SPAAN: A software program for prediction of adhesins and adhesin-like proteins using neural networks","volume":"21","author":"Sachdeva","year":"2005","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2164","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.186.7.2164-2172.2004","article-title":"Comparative Genomics of Two Leptospira interrogans Serovars Reveals Novel Insights into Physiology and Pathogenesis","volume":"186","author":"Nascimento","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1412","DOI":"10.1002\/pro.3668","article-title":"New tools for recombinant protein production in Escherichia coli: A 5-year update","volume":"28","author":"Rosano","year":"2019","journal-title":"Protein Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/S0076-6879(09)63017-2","article-title":"Refolding solubilized inclusion body proteins","volume":"463","author":"Burgess","year":"2009","journal-title":"Methods Enzymol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1750","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btt278","article-title":"CAPITO\u2014A web server-based analysis and plotting tool for circular dichroism data","volume":"29","author":"Wiedemann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Staton, G.J., Clegg, S.R., Ainsworth, S., Armstrong, S., Carter, S.D., Radford, A.D., Darby, A., Wastling, J., Hall, N., and Evans, N.J. (2021). Dissecting the molecular diversity and commonality of bovine and human treponemes identifies key survival and adhesion mechanisms. PLoS Pathog., 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1009464"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6356","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00460-06","article-title":"A Newly Identified Leptospiral Adhesin Mediates Attachment to Laminin","volume":"74","author":"Barbosa","year":"2006","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Walsh, B.W., Lenhart, J.S., Schroeder, J.W., and Simmons, L.A. (2012). Single-Stranded DNA Binding Proteins, Springer."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1135(99)00103-0","article-title":"Development of an ELISA to detect antibodies to a protective lipopolysaccharide fraction of Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar hardjo in cattle","volume":"69","author":"Yan","year":"1999","journal-title":"Veter.-Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/2046-0481-65-8","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Leptospira hardjo in the Irish suckler cattle population","volume":"65","author":"Ryan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ir. Veter. J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19380","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M109.004531","article-title":"Repeated domains of Leptospira immunoglobulin-like proteins interact with elastin and tropoelastin","volume":"284","author":"Lin","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"95","article-title":"BioEdit: A user-friendly biological sequence alignment editor and analysis program for Windows 95\/98\/NT","volume":"41","author":"Hall","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Symp. Ser."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2725","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/mst197","article-title":"MEGA6: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis Version 6.0","volume":"30","author":"Tamura","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4958","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.69.8.4958-4968.2001","article-title":"Leptospiral Proteins Recognized during the Humoral Immune Response to Leptospirosis in Humans","volume":"69","author":"Guerreiro","year":"2001","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1007\/s12010-012-9973-4","article-title":"Recombinant OmpL1 protein as a diagnostic antigen for the detection of canine leptospirosis","volume":"169","author":"Subathra","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4673","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/22.22.4673","article-title":"CLUSTAL W: Improving the sensitivity of progressive multiple sequence alignment through sequence weighting, position-specific gap penalties and weight matrix choice","volume":"22","author":"Thompson","year":"1994","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2818","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.186.9.2818-2828.2004","article-title":"Molecular evolution and mosaicism of leptospiral outer membrane proteins involves horizontal DNA transfer","volume":"186","author":"Haake","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2011.02.055","article-title":"Pathogenesis of leptospirosis: The influence of genomics","volume":"153","author":"Adler","year":"2011","journal-title":"Veter.-Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2012.11.028","article-title":"Evaluation of 238 antigens of Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar Hardjo for protection against kidney colonisation","volume":"31","author":"Murray","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6843","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-43139-0","article-title":"Immunogenicity profiling of protein antigens from capsular group B Neisseria meningitidis","volume":"9","author":"Awanye","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"M111.007930","DOI":"10.1074\/mcp.M111.007930","article-title":"Physiological Response to Membrane Protein Overexpression in E. coli","volume":"10","author":"Gubellini","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Proteom."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1760","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0813167106","article-title":"Detergent Binding Explains Anomalous SDS-PAGE Migration of Membrane Proteins","volume":"106","author":"Rath","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adler, B. (2015). Leptospira and Leptospirosis, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-45059-8"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1136\/emj.2007.051524","article-title":"Leptospirosis pulmonary haemorrhage: A diagnostic challenge","volume":"25","author":"Sluga","year":"2008","journal-title":"Emerg. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1111\/1574-6968.12349","article-title":"Leptospiral extracellular matrix adhesins as mediators of pathogen-host interactions","volume":"352","author":"Vieira","year":"2014","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghosh, S., and O\u2019Connor, T.J. (2017). Beyond Paralogs: The Multiple Layers of Redundancy in Bacterial Pathogenesis. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2017.00467"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Picardeau, M., Bulach, D.M., Bouchier, C., Zuerner, R.L., Zidane, N., Wilson, P.J., Creno, S., Kuczek, E.S., Bommezzadri, S., and Davis, J.C. (2008). Genome sequence of the saprophyte Leptospira biflexa provides insights into the evolution of Leptospira and the pathogenesis of leptospirosis. PLoS ONE, 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0001607"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.3390\/nu3040442","article-title":"Perspectives on immunoglobulins in colostrum and milk","volume":"3","author":"Hurley","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2768","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00531-13","article-title":"Leptospiral Outer Membrane Protein LipL41 Is Not Essential for Acute Leptospirosis but Requires a Small Chaperone Protein, Lep, for Stable Expression","volume":"81","author":"King","year":"2013","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, H., Hu, Y., Xue, F., Sun, D., Ojcius, D.M., Mao, Y., and Yan, J. (2008). Characterization of the ompL1 gene of pathogenic Leptospira species in China and cross-immunogenicity of the OmpL1 protein. BMC Microbiol., 8.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-8-223"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.3855\/jidc.3174","article-title":"Molecular identification of the ompL1 gene within Leptospira interrogans standard serovars","volume":"8","author":"Dezhbord","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dev. Ctries."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2420","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268816000637","article-title":"Leptospira in breast tissue and milk of urban Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus)","volume":"144","author":"Figueira","year":"2016","journal-title":"Epidemiology Infect."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"75","article-title":"OmpL1 DNA vaccine cross-protects against heterologous Leptospira spp. challenge","volume":"25","author":"Maneewatch","year":"2007","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268806006352","article-title":"The epidemiology of leptospirosis and the emergence of Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar Arborea in Queensland, Australia, 1998\u20132004","volume":"134","author":"Slack","year":"2006","journal-title":"Epidemiology Infect."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2020.03.020","article-title":"First report of human Leptospira santarosai infection in French Guiana","volume":"13","author":"Kallel","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2008.07.005","article-title":"Carriage of Leptospira interrogans among domestic rats from an urban setting highly endemic for leptospirosis in Brazil","volume":"108","author":"Calderwood","year":"2008","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.2008.00324.x","article-title":"Cross-sectional study of canine leptospirosis in animal shelter populations in mainland Australia","volume":"86","author":"Zwijnenberg","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aust. Veter. J."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1227","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.011528-0","article-title":"Human leptospirosis cases and the prevalence of rats harbouring Leptospira interrogans in urban areas of Tokyo, Japan","volume":"58","author":"Koizumi","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1099\/00207713-49-3-1111","article-title":"DNA relatedness of Leptospira strains isolated from beef cattle in Zimbabwe","volume":"49","author":"Feresu","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mgode, G.F., Machang\u2019u, R.S., Mhamphi, G.G., Katakweba, A., Mulungu, L.S., Durnez, L., Leirs, H., Hartskeerl, R.A., and Belmain, S.R. (2015). Leptospira serovars for diagnosis of leptospirosis in humans and animals in Africa: Common Leptospira isolates and reservoir hosts. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004251"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"840","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2018.840-844","article-title":"Leptospirosis seropositivity and its serovars among cattle in Northeastern Malaysia","volume":"11","author":"Daud","year":"2018","journal-title":"Veter. World"}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/12\/2\/245\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T13:48:34Z","timestamp":1760104114000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/12\/2\/245"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,24]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms12020245"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms12020245","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,24]]}}}