{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T06:40:36Z","timestamp":1788417636966,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,25]],"date-time":"2024-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1721865600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Biofilms, aggregates of bacteria enclosed in a self-produced matrix, have been implicated in various pediatric respiratory infections, including acute otitis media (AOM), otitis media with effusion (OME), adenoiditis, protracted bacterial bronchitis, and pulmonary exacerbations in cystic fibrosis. These infections are prevalent in children and often associated with biofilm-producing pathogens, leading to recurrent and chronic conditions. Biofilms reduce antibiotic efficacy, contributing to treatment failure and disease persistence. This narrative review discusses biofilm production by respiratory pathogens such as Streptococcus pneumoniae, non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus. It examines their mechanisms of biofilm formation, antibiotic resistance, and the challenges they present in clinical treatment. Various antibiofilm strategies have shown promise in vitro and in animal studies, including the use of N-acetylcysteine, enzymes like dispersin B, and agents disrupting quorum sensing and biofilm matrix components. However, their clinical application, particularly in children, remains limited. Traditional treatments for biofilm-associated diseases have not significantly evolved, even with biofilm detection. The transition from experimental findings to clinical practice is complex and requires robust clinical trials and standardized biofilm detection protocols. Addressing biofilms in pediatric respiratory infections is crucial for improving treatment outcomes and managing recurrent and chronic diseases effectively.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12081522","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,25]],"date-time":"2024-07-25T06:11:36Z","timestamp":1721887896000},"page":"1522","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Biofilm Production and Its Implications in Pediatrics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3468-5568","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicola","family":"Principi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Universit\u00e0 degli Studi di Milano, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4103-2837","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Susanna","family":"Esposito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Clinic, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1126\/science.284.5418.1318","article-title":"Bacterial biofilms: A common cause of persistent infections","volume":"284","author":"Costerton","year":"1999","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perry, E.K., and Tan, M.W. 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