{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T02:45:27Z","timestamp":1790390727292,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,19]],"date-time":"2024-11-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1731974400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Chronic wounds are often caused or exacerbated by microbial biofilms that are highly resistant to antimicrobial treatments and that prevent healing. This study compared the antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity of nine topical wound treatments, comprising gels with different concentrations of poloxamer 407 (20\u201326%) and different pH levels (4\u20136) and containing polyhexanide (PHMB) as an antimicrobial agent; the effects of pH on wound gels containing this agent have not been previously reported. The wound gel formulations were tested against six common wound-associated microbial pathogens: Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Candida albicans. Time-kill assays were used to assess antimicrobial activity against planktonic forms of each species, and a colony biofilm model was used to assess antibiofilm activity against existing biofilms as well as inhibition of new biofilm formation. Biofilm inhibition activity was also assessed in the presence of common wound dressing materials. Wound gels with higher pH levels exhibited stronger antimicrobial activity, while poloxamer 407 concentrations &gt;20% negatively impacted antimicrobial activity. Wound gel formulations were identified that had antimicrobial, antibiofilm, and biofilm inhibition activity against all tested species in vitro. Biofilm inhibition activity was not affected by contact with common wound dressings. Further development of these wound gels may provide a valuable new option for the treatment and prevention of chronic wounds.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12112362","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,19]],"date-time":"2024-11-19T04:53:05Z","timestamp":1731991985000},"page":"2362","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Wound Gel Formulations Containing Poloxamer 407 and Polyhexanide Have In Vitro Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Activity Against Wound-Associated Microbial Pathogens"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6099-409X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeyachchandran","family":"Visvalingam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Kane Biotech Inc., 290-100 Innovation Drive, Winnipeg, MB R3T 6G2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nandadeva","family":"Yakandawala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kane Biotech Inc., 290-100 Innovation Drive, Winnipeg, MB R3T 6G2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suresh","family":"Regmi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kane Biotech Inc., 290-100 Innovation Drive, Winnipeg, MB R3T 6G2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adetola","family":"Adeniji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kane Biotech Inc., 290-100 Innovation Drive, Winnipeg, MB R3T 6G2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-6480-9744","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Parveen","family":"Sharma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kane Biotech Inc., 290-100 Innovation Drive, Winnipeg, MB R3T 6G2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miloslav","family":"Sailer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kane Biotech Inc., 290-100 Innovation Drive, Winnipeg, MB R3T 6G2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.2340\/00015555-2786","article-title":"Need for Improved Definition of \u201cChronic Wounds\u201d in Clinical Studies","volume":"98","author":"Kyaw","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Derm. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1524-475X.2009.00543.x","article-title":"Human Skin Wounds: A Major and Snowballing Threat to Public Health and the Economy","volume":"17","author":"Sen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Wound Repair Regen."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1089\/wound.2023.0150","article-title":"Human Wound and Its Burden: Updated 2022 Compendium of Estimates","volume":"12","author":"Sen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Wound Care"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S38","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9610(03)00303-9","article-title":"A Specialized Wound-Healing Center Concept: Importance of a Multidisciplinary Department Structure and Surgical Treatment Facilities in the Treatment of Chronic Wounds","volume":"187","author":"Gottrup","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jval.2017.07.007","article-title":"An Economic Evaluation of the Impact, Cost, and Medicare Policy Implications of Chronic Nonhealing Wounds","volume":"21","author":"Nussbaum","year":"2018","journal-title":"Value Health"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yadav, M.K., Song, J.-J., Singh, B.P., and Vidal, J.E. (2020). Microbial Biofilms and Human Disease: A Concise Review. New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering: Microbial Biofilms, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-64279-0.00001-3"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.12968\/jowc.2017.26.1.20","article-title":"The Prevalence of Biofilms in Chronic Wounds: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Published Data","volume":"26","author":"Malone","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Wound Care"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cavallo, I., Sivori, F., Mastrofrancesco, A., Abril, E., Pontone, M., Domenico, E.G.D., and Pimpinelli, F. (2024). Bacterial Biofilm in Chronic Wounds and Possible Therapeutic Approaches. Biology, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology13020109"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1524-475X.1999.00442.x","article-title":"Analysis of the Acute and Chronic Wound Environments: The Role of Proteases and Their Inhibitors","volume":"7","author":"Trengove","year":"1999","journal-title":"Wound Repair Regen."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1089\/wound.2012.0370","article-title":"Proteases and Delayed Wound Healing","volume":"2","author":"McCarty","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Wound Care"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1089\/wound.2014.0538","article-title":"The Effect of pH on the Extracellular Matrix and Biofilms","volume":"4","author":"Jones","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Wound Care"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"154","article-title":"The Role of pH Modulation in Wound Bed Preparation","volume":"8","author":"Rodgers","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabet. Foot"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"52","article-title":"The Significance of Surface pH in Chronic Wounds","volume":"3","author":"Gethin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Wounds UK"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1007\/s00403-006-0713-x","article-title":"Influence of pH on Wound-Healing: A New Perspective for Wound-Therapy?","volume":"298","author":"Schneider","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arch. Dermatol. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1397","DOI":"10.1111\/iwj.13733","article-title":"The Impact of Topical Agents and Dressing on pH and Temperature on Wound Healing: A Systematic, Narrative Review","volume":"19","author":"Derwin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Wound J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1111\/iwj.12619","article-title":"A Surfactant-based Wound Dressing Can Reduce Bacterial Biofilms in a Porcine Skin Explant Model","volume":"14","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Wound J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e85","DOI":"10.1002\/bjs.10433","article-title":"Importance of Biofilm Formation in Surgical Infection","volume":"104","author":"Percival","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1097\/00129334-200701000-00013","article-title":"The Role of Moisture Balance in Wound Healing","volume":"20","author":"Okan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Adv. Skin Wound Care"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, X., Li, Z., Ge, X., Qi, X., Xiang, Y., Shi, Y., Li, Y., Pan, Y., Wang, Y., and Ru, Y. (2024). Ferric Iron\/Shikonin Nanoparticle-Embedded Hydrogels with Robust Adhesion and Healing Functions for Treating Oral Ulcers in Diabetes. Adv. Sci., 2405463.","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202405463"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"208","article-title":"Synergistic Effect and Antibiofilm Activity of a Skin and Wound Cleanser","volume":"32","author":"Salamone","year":"2020","journal-title":"Wounds"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eimc.2016.02.008","article-title":"In Vitro Activity of a Polyhexanide\u2013Betaine Solution against High-Risk Clones of Multidrug-Resistant Nosocomial Pathogens","volume":"35","author":"Pascual","year":"2017","journal-title":"Enfermedades Infecc. Microbiol. Cl\u00ednica"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1524-475X.2007.00321.x","article-title":"Biofilms in Chronic Wounds","volume":"16","author":"James","year":"2008","journal-title":"Wound Repair Regen."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1111\/wrr.12370","article-title":"Analysis of the Chronic Wound Microbiota of 2,963 Patients by 16S rDNA Pyrosequencing","volume":"24","author":"Wolcott","year":"2016","journal-title":"Wound Repair Regen."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"tkac014","DOI":"10.1093\/burnst\/tkac014","article-title":"Challenges and Innovations in Treating Chronic and Acute Wound Infections: From Basic Science to Clinical Practice","volume":"10","author":"Ding","year":"2022","journal-title":"Burn. Trauma"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Gawande, G., LoVetri, K., Yakandawala, N., Froelich, G., and Madhyastha, S. (2018). Antimicrobial-Antibiofilm Compositions and Methods of Use Thereof. (US9980497B2), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2024, June 18). BASF Kolliphor\u00ae P 407 Geismar: Technical Information 2020. Available online: https:\/\/pharma.basf.com\/products\/kolliphor-p-407-geismar."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ali, S., and Wilson, A.P.R. (2017). Effect of Poly-Hexamethylene Biguanide Hydrochloride (PHMB) Treated Non-Sterile Medical Gloves upon the Transmission of Streptococcus Pyogenes, Carbapenem-Resistant E. Coli, MRSA and Klebsiella Pneumoniae from Contact Surfaces. BMC Infect. Dis., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-017-2661-9"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.burns.2010.09.017","article-title":"An in Vitro Biofilm Model to Examine the Effect of Antibiotic Ointments on Biofilms Produced by Burn Wound Bacterial Isolates","volume":"37","author":"Hammond","year":"2011","journal-title":"Burns"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1111\/wrr.12590","article-title":"Consensus Guidelines for the Identification and Treatment of Biofilms in Chronic Nonhealing Wounds","volume":"25","author":"Schultz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Wound Repair Regen."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S10","DOI":"10.12968\/jowc.2022.31.Sup12.S10","article-title":"IWII Wound Infection in Clinical Practice Consensus Document: 2022 Update","volume":"31","author":"Swanson","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Wound Care"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1159\/000367632","article-title":"pH Influence on Antibacterial Efficacy of Common Antiseptic Substances","volume":"28","author":"Wiegand","year":"2015","journal-title":"Skin Pharmacol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1111\/wrr.12528","article-title":"Antibacterial Activity of Polihexanide Formulations in a Co-culture of HaCaT Keratinocytes and Staphylococcus Aureus and at Different pH Levels","volume":"25","author":"Wiegand","year":"2017","journal-title":"Wound Repair Regen."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-2736(83)90152-9","article-title":"Interaction of Biologically Active Molecules with Phospholipid Membranes","volume":"735","author":"Ikeda","year":"1983","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA)-Biomembr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1111\/lam.13420","article-title":"Impact of pH on Citric Acid Antimicrobial Activity against Gram-negative Bacteria","volume":"72","author":"Burel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"An, S.-H., Ban, E., Chung, I.-Y., Cho, Y.-H., and Kim, A. (2021). Antimicrobial Activities of Propolis in Poloxamer Based Topical Gels. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13122021"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2004.09.028","article-title":"Sustained Release of Lidocaine from Poloxamer 407 Gels","volume":"288","author":"Ricci","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1524-475X.2007.00283.x","article-title":"Why Chronic Wounds Will Not Heal: A Novel Hypothesis","volume":"16","author":"Bjarnsholt","year":"2008","journal-title":"Wound Repair Regen."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1089\/wound.2018.0784","article-title":"Clinical Outcomes for Diabetic Foot Ulcers Treated with Clostridial Collagenase Ointment or with a Product Containing Silver","volume":"7","author":"Motley","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Wound Care"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1159\/000318237","article-title":"Polihexanide: A Safe and Highly Effective Biocide","volume":"23","author":"Kaehn","year":"2010","journal-title":"Skin Pharmacol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1159\/000318264","article-title":"Review on the Efficacy, Safety and Clinical Applications of Polihexanide, a Modern Wound Antiseptic","volume":"23","author":"Kramer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Skin Pharmacol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"40","article-title":"PHMB and Its Potential Contribution to Wound Management","volume":"6","author":"Gray","year":"2010","journal-title":"Wounds UK"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Office of the Federal Register, and National Archives and Records Administration Proposed Rule (2023). Medical Devices; General and Plastic Surgery Devices; Classification of Certain Solid Wound Dressings; Wound Dressings Formulated as a Gel, Creams, or Ointment; and Liquid Wound Washes. Fed. Regist., 88, 83774\u201383802."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1111\/iwj.13093","article-title":"Surfactants: Role in Biofilm Management and Cellular Behaviour","volume":"16","author":"Percival","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Wound J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qu, Y., McGiffin, D., Kure, C., McLean, J., Duncan, C., and Peleg, A.Y. (2020). In Vitro Evaluation of Medihoney Antibacterial Wound Gel as an Anti-Biofilm Agent against Ventricular Sssist Device Driveline Infections. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.605608"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joshi, K.M., Shelar, A., Kasabe, U., Nikam, L.K., Pawar, R.A., Sangshetti, J., Kale, B.B., Singh, A.V., Patil, R., and Chaskar, M.G. (2022). Biofilm Inhibition in Candida Albicans with Biogenic Hierarchical Zinc-Oxide Nanoparticles. Biomater. Adv., 134.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2021.112592"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, A.V., Vyas, V., Salve, T.S., Cortelli, D., Dellasega, D., Podest\u00e0, A., Milani, P., and Gade, W.N. (2012). Biofilm Formation on Nanostructured Titanium Oxide Surfaces and a Micro\/Nanofabrication-Based Preventive Strategy Using Colloidal Lithography. Biofabrication, 4.","DOI":"10.1088\/1758-5082\/4\/2\/025001"}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/12\/11\/2362\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:35:05Z","timestamp":1760114105000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/12\/11\/2362"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,19]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms12112362"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms12112362","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,19]]}}}