{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T20:57:33Z","timestamp":1780088253376,"version":"3.54.0"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,8]],"date-time":"2025-01-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736294400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular protozoan parasite that infects a wide range of vertebrates, including humans. Although cats are the only definitive host, any warm-blooded animal can act as a paratenic host. Throughout the years, this apicomplexan parasite has been studied due to its wide prevalence, zoonotic potential, and host behavioral alterations. Known for its neurological alterations, the rabies virus is one of the most recognized types of zoonosis that, although preventable, still causes deaths in humans and animals worldwide. Due to the overlapping clinical signs of these two pathogens, the objective of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of T. gondii DNA in cerebellum tissue collected for rabies testing; cerebellum tissue from diverse animals is often submitted for this purpose. Between May 2022 and April 2024, we tested 903 cerebellum tissue samples from 22 animal species submitted for rabies testing to the Oklahoma Animal Diagnostic Disease Laboratory. Overall, T. gondii prevalence was 3.96%, with 1.8% found in cats (Felis catus), 1.7% in dogs (Canis familiaris), 0.3% in skunks (Mephitis mephitis), and 0.2% in infected cattle (Bos taurus). Analysis among T. gondii-positive hosts revealed a statistically significant difference in dogs when comparing neutered vs. intact males, with 7.94% (5\/63) T. gondii-positive neutered males and 1.61% (3\/186) T. gondii-positive intact males (p = 0.02). All the T. gondii-positive samples were negative for rabies. Anamnesis in some of the T. gondii-positive samples included ataxia, aggression, muscle rigidity, lethargy, and seizures, with the latter also described in dogs and aggression in the positive bovine sample. The clinical signs described in the T. gondii-infected hosts can be mistaken for rabies infection; therefore, it is important to consider T. gondii as a differential diagnosis in suspected rabies cases and test for this parasite when negative rabies results are obtained.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13010109","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,8]],"date-time":"2025-01-08T04:54:08Z","timestamp":1736312048000},"page":"109","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Toxoplasma gondii and Rabies\u2014The Parasite, the Virus, or Both?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Ragan","family":"Wilson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shannon","family":"Caseltine","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oklahoma Animal Diseases Diagnostic Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Edith","family":"Will","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeremiah","family":"Saliki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oklahoma Animal Diseases Diagnostic Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5795-5906","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruth C.","family":"Scimeca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1292","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-11-417","article-title":"Annual cost of illness and quality-adjusted life year losses in the United States due to 14 foodborne pathogens","volume":"75","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1701.P11101","article-title":"Foodborne illness acquired in the United States major pathogens","volume":"17","author":"Scallan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2020.102175","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in the U.S.: Evidence from a representative cross-sectional survey","volume":"79","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasitol. Int."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2020.109223","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii infections in dogs: 2009\u20132020","volume":"287","author":"Dubey","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-3954-1","article-title":"The global serological prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in felids during the last five decades (1967\u20132017): A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"13","author":"Montazeri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2004.07.008","article-title":"Reduction in adhesiveness to extracellular matrix components, modulation of adhesion molecules and in vivo migration of murine macrophages infected with Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"6","author":"Guimaraes","year":"2004","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2005-02-0666","article-title":"CD11c- and CD11b-expressing mouse leukocytes transport single Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites to the brain","volume":"107","author":"Courret","year":"2006","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-020-04528-x","article-title":"Behaivoral biology of Toxoplasma gondii infection","volume":"14","author":"Tong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"962","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjbs.2020.11.007","article-title":"Toxoplasmosis: Stages of the protozoan life cycle and risk assessment in humans and animals for an enhanced awareness and an improved socio-economic status","volume":"28","year":"2021","journal-title":"Saudi J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2021.1590","article-title":"Association of Toxoplasma gondii Seropositivity With Cognitive Function in Healthy People: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"78","author":"Sutterland","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2023.01.005","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of the serological diagnosis of Toxoplasma gondii infection highlight the lack of a One Health integrative research","volume":"155","author":"Ceron","year":"2023","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hatam-Nahavandi, K., Calero-Bernal, R., Rahimi, M.T., Pagheh, A.S., Zarean, M., and Deshkam AAhmadpour, E. (2021). Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic and wild felids as public health concerns: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-89031-8"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2019.05.015","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii infection and risk of Parkinson and Alzheimer diseases: A systematic review and meta-analysis on observational studies","volume":"196","author":"Bayani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2016.11.016","article-title":"Is there any association between Toxoplasma gondii infection and bipolar disorder? A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"209","author":"Salem","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prandovszky, E., Gaskell, E., Martin, H., Dubey, J.P., Webster, J.P., and McConkey, G.A. (2011). The Neurotropic Parasite Toxoplasma gondii Increases Dopamine Metabolism. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0023866"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.14m09621","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii infection: Relationship with aggression in psychiatric subjects","volume":"77","author":"Coccaro","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calero-Bernal, R., and Gennari, S.M. (2019). Clinical toxoplasmosis in dogs and cats; An Update. Front. Vet. Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2019.00054"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2020.109145","article-title":"All about toxoplasmosis in cats: The last decade","volume":"283","author":"Dubey","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2725","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-021-02368-8","article-title":"Neurodevelopmental scaling is a major driver of brain\u2013behavior differences in temperament across dog breeds","volume":"226","author":"Hecht","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"64","article-title":"Detection and Identification of Toxoplasma gondii Type One Infection in Sheep Aborted Fetuses in Qazvin Province of Iran","volume":"7","author":"Habibi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Iran. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1007\/s12639-022-01548-5","article-title":"Prevalence and genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii strains isolated from 31 wild Passeriformes collected in North-Central Oklahoma","volume":"47","author":"Scimeca","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Parasit. Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2008.04.007","article-title":"Detection of Neospora caninum in dog organs using real time PCR systems","volume":"155","author":"Ghalmi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.2307\/3284227","article-title":"Parasitology meets ecology on its own terms: Margolis et al. revisited","volume":"83","author":"Bush","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Sokal, R.R., and Rohlf, F.J. (1995). Biometry: The Principles and Practice of Statistics in Biological Research, W.H. Freeman and Co.. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1007\/s40588-015-0024-0","article-title":"Neurological and neuropsychiatric consequences of chronic Toxoplasma infection","volume":"2","author":"Flegr","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Clin. Microbiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1177\/1098612X13489228","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii infection in cats: ABCD guidelines on prevention and management","volume":"15","author":"Hartmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Feline Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2014.09.008","article-title":"Acute onset of encephalomyelitis with atypical lesions associated with dual infection of Sarcocystis neurona and Toxoplasma gondii in a dog","volume":"205","author":"Gerhold","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1177\/1040638712471344","article-title":"Concomitant canine distemper, infectious canine hepatitis, canine parvoviral enteritis, canine infectious tracheobronchitis, and toxoplasmosis in a puppy","volume":"25","author":"Headley","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Vet. Diagn. Investig."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.072983","article-title":"Parasite-augmented mate choice and reduction in innate fear in rats infected by Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"216","author":"Vyas","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tong, W.H., Abdulai-Saiku, S., and Vyas, A. (2019). Testosterone reduces fear and causes drastic hypomethylation of arginine vasopressin promoter in medial extended amygdala of male mice. Front. Behav. Neurosci., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2019.00033"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-3-112","article-title":"Toxoplasmosis of Animals and Humans","volume":"3","author":"Webster","year":"2010","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1645\/GE-1489.1","article-title":"Experimental Toxoplasma gondii infection in striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis)","volume":"94","author":"Quirk","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.2307\/3283381","article-title":"Experimental Toxoplasma gondii infection in raccoons (Procyon lotor)","volume":"79","author":"Dubey","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.23.02.0081","article-title":"Rabies surveillance in the United Sates during 2021","volume":"261","author":"Ma","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAVMA"}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/13\/1\/109\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:24:35Z","timestamp":1759919075000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/13\/1\/109"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,8]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms13010109"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms13010109","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,8]]}}}