{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T22:16:13Z","timestamp":1790374573663,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]],"date-time":"2025-01-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736985600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The medicinal potential of plant extracts, especially their antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiviral and cytotoxic properties, has gained significant attention in recent years. This study examined the in vitro bioactivities of several selected Greek medicinal plants, like Eucalyptus globulus L., Thymus vulgaris L., Salvia rosmarinus L. and Ocimum basilicum L., are well-known for their traditional therapeutic use. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) assays were used to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of the extracts against pathogenic bacteria. The antioxidant activity was carried out using the DPPH method, while the cytotoxicity of the plants was determined using the Alamar Blue method. In addition, the antiviral efficacy of the samples was tested against DENV in different cell lines. The majority of medicinal herbs demonstrated significant antimicrobial action (MIC = 30\u20133000 \u03bcg\u2219mL\u22121). The extracts showed great antioxidant activity, while the Salvia rosmarinus L. extract turned out to be the most effective (IC50 = 12.89 \u00b1 0.11 \u03bcg\u2219mL\u22121). In contrast, the extract of Eucalyptus globulus L. had the lowest antioxidant action (IC50 = 71.02 \u00b1 0.42 \u03bcg\u2219mL\u22121). The results of the Alamar Blue method were presented with CC50 values, and it was shown that Eucalyptus globulus L. extract exhibited the highest cytotoxicity (CC50 = 5.94% v\/v \u00b1 0.04). Similarly, the results of the antiviral potential of extracts were expressed as EC50 values, and Eucalyptus globulus L. was characterized as the most effective sample against dengue virus infection, with EC50 values estimated at 2.37% v\/v \u00b1 0.6 (HuhD-2 cells infected with DENV-2) and 0.36% v\/v \u00b1 0.004 (Huh7.5 cells infected with DVR2A). These findings provide a foundation for further studies in order to combat infectious diseases and promote human health.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13010177","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]],"date-time":"2025-01-16T04:55:19Z","timestamp":1737003319000},"page":"177","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["In Vitro Determination of Antimicrobial, Antioxidant and Antiviral Properties of Greek Plant Extracts"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-3278-7461","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aliki","family":"Tsakni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Food Sciences, University of West Attica, 12243 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eirini","family":"Kyriakopoulou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, 11521 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9155-0889","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sophia","family":"Letsiou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Food Sciences, University of West Attica, 12243 Athens, Greece"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Science, University of West Attica, 12243 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8559-8977","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Panagiotis","family":"Halvatsiotis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"2nd Propaedeutic Department of Internal Medicine, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, \u201cATTIKON\u201d University Hospital, 12461 Chaidari, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Haralambos","family":"Rigopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Food Sciences, University of West Attica, 12243 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7992-3438","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Niki","family":"Vassilaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, 11521 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dimitra","family":"Houhoula","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Food Sciences, University of West Attica, 12243 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"9","article-title":"Medicinal and aromatic plants diversity in Greece and their future prospects: A review","volume":"4","author":"Solomou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Agric. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"356","article-title":"Evaluation of the antibacterial activity of the essential oil and antioxidant activity of aqueous extracts of the Eucalyptus globulus Labill. leaves","volume":"3","author":"Pombal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glob. Adv. Res. J. Agric. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2018.01.162","article-title":"Herbal distillates: A new era of grape marc distillates with enriched antioxidant profile","volume":"253","author":"Andreou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-006-0326-5","article-title":"Effect of oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) essential oils on Trypanosoma cruzi (Protozoa: Kinetoplastida) growth and ultrastructure","volume":"100","author":"Santoro","year":"2007","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101818","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fochx.2024.101818","article-title":"Green enrichment of argan oil (Argania spinosa L.) with thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) and oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) leaves: Evaluating quality and stability improvements","volume":"24","author":"Oubannin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Chem. X"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1104\/pp.121.3.1047","article-title":"Enhanced formation of \u03b1-tocopherol and highly oxidized abietane diterpenes in water-stressed rosemary plants","volume":"121","author":"Schwarz","year":"1999","journal-title":"Plant Physiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2015.08.080","article-title":"Drought and soil amendment effects on monoterpene emission in rosemary plants","volume":"538","author":"Muzzini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111893","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2019.111893","article-title":"Improving water use efficiency through drought stress and using salicylic acid for proper production of Rosmarinus officinalis L.","volume":"144","author":"Abbaszadeh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1007\/s004250050699","article-title":"Changes in carotenoids, tocopherols and diterpenes during drought and recovery, and the biological significance of chlorophyll loss in Rosmarinus officinalis plants","volume":"210","author":"Alegre","year":"2000","journal-title":"Planta"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1309","article-title":"Effects of drought on photosynthesis in Mediterranean plants grown under enhanced UV-B radiation","volume":"51","author":"Nogues","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Exp. Bot."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1078\/0176-1617-01191","article-title":"Variations in water status, gas exchange, and growth in Rosmarinus officinalis plants infected with Glomus deserticola under drought conditions","volume":"161","author":"Morales","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Plant Physiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14652","DOI":"10.1111\/ppl.14652","article-title":"Interactive effects of Orobanche latisquama parasitism and drought stress in Salvia rosmarinus plants growing under Mediterranean field conditions","volume":"176","year":"2024","journal-title":"Physiol. Plant."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.14302\/issn.2638-4469.japb-18-2423","article-title":"Medicinal Plants and their Traditional Uses","volume":"1","author":"Keskin","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Adv. Plant Biol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qasem, A., Assaggaf, H., Mrabti, H.N., Minshawi, F., Rajab, B.S., Attar, A.A., Alyamani, R.A., Hamed, M., Mrabti, N.N., and El Baaboua, A. (2023). Determination of Chemical Composition and Investigation of Biological Activities of Ocimum basilicum L.. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28020614"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131692","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2021.131692","article-title":"Determination of volatiles, antioxidant activity, and polyphenol content in the postharvest waste of Ocimum basilicum L.","volume":"375","author":"Mahmoud","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1007\/s12010-021-03702-w","article-title":"Antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytotoxic activities and phytochemical analysis of fungal endophytes isolated from Ocimum basilicum","volume":"194","author":"Sharaf","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dolghi, A., Buzatu, R., Dobrescu, A., Olaru, F., Popescu, G.A., Marcovici, I., Pinzaru, I., Navolan, D., Cretu, O.M., and Popescu, I. (2021). Phytochemical Analysis and In Vitro Cytotoxic Activity against Colorectal Adenocarcinoma Cells of Hippophae rhamnodies L., Cymbopogon citratus (D.C.) Stapf, and Ocimum basilicum L. Essential Oils. Plants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants10122752"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1080\/17425255.2018.1484450","article-title":"The Potential Effects of Ocimum Basilicum on Health: A Review of Pharmacological and Toxicological Studies","volume":"14","author":"Sestili","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Azizah, N.S., Irawan, B., Kusmoro, J., Safriansyah, W., Farabi, K., Oktavia, D., Doni, F., and Miranti, M. (2023). Sweet Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.)\u2014A Review of Its Botany, Phytochemistry, Pharmacological Activities, and Biotechnological Development. Plants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants12244148"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e39635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e39635","article-title":"Prospects of Carica papaya in the treatment of human viral infections: A comprehensive and a systematic review","volume":"10","author":"Qaiser","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"796","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-020-0714-0","article-title":"The continued threat of emerging flaviviruses","volume":"5","author":"Pierson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Chr\u00e9tien, F., Wong, K.T., Sharer, L.R., Keohane, C., and Gray, F. (2020). Flaviviruses 2: West Nile, St. Louis encephalitis, Murray valley encephalitis, yellow fever, and dengue. Infections of the Central Nervous System Pathology and Genetics, WILEY Blackwell. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harapan, H., Michie, A., Sasmono, R.T., and Imrie, A. (2020). Dengue: A minireview. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12080829"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2183","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-016-2877-9","article-title":"Insect-specific flaviviruses in Aedes mosquitoes in Greece","volume":"161","author":"Papa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153472","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.153472","article-title":"Safer plant-based nanoparticles for combating antibiotic resistance in bacteria: A comprehensive review on its potential applications, recent advances, and future perspective","volume":"821","author":"Anand","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arip, M., Selvaraja, M., Tan, L.F., Leong, M.Y., Tan, P.L., Yap, V.L., Chinnapan, S., Tat, N.C., Abdullah, M., and Kumar, D. (2022). Review on plant-based management in combating antimicrobial resistance-mechanistic perspective. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.879495"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thomford, N.E., Senthebane, D.A., Rowe, A., Munro, D., Seele, P., Maroyi, A., and Dzobo, K. (2018). Natural products for drug discovery in the 21st century: Innovations for novel drug discovery. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19061578"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103058","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forpol.2023.103058","article-title":"Herbal medicine promotion for a restorative bioeconomy in tropical forests: A reality check on the Brazilian Amazon","volume":"155","author":"Lindberg","year":"2023","journal-title":"For. Policy Econ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2015.08.008","article-title":"Optimization of polyphenols extraction from dried chokeberry using maceration as traditional technique","volume":"194","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.2298\/JSC0701073V","article-title":"Extraction of flavonoids from garden (Salvia officinalis L.) and glutinous (Salvia glutinosa L.) sage by ultrasonic and classical maceration","volume":"72","author":"Nikolova","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Serbian Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.4103\/0973-7847.79099","article-title":"Novel approaches for stability improvement in natural medicines","volume":"5","author":"Thakur","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pharmacogn. Rev."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Munteanu, I.G., and Apetrei, C. (2021). Analytical methods used in determining antioxidant activity: A review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22073380"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1768","DOI":"10.1021\/jf803011r","article-title":"Comparative study of antioxidant properties and total phenolic content of 30 plant extracts of industrial interest using DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, SOD, and ORAC assays","volume":"57","author":"Dudonne","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gulcin, \u0130., and Alwasel, S.H. (2023). DPPH radical scavenging assay. Processes, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr11082248"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aryal, S., Baniya, M.K., Danekhu, K., Kunwar, P., Gurung, R., and Koirala, N. (2019). Total phenolic content, flavonoid content and antioxidant potential of wild vegetables from Western Nepal. Plants, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants8040096"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.5487\/TR.2011.27.1.031","article-title":"Evaluation of antimicrobial activity of the methanol extracts from 8 traditional medicinal plants","volume":"27","author":"Kang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Toxicol. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stegli\u0144ska, A., Bekhter, A., Wawrzyniak, P., Kunicka-Styczy\u0144ska, A., Jastrz\u0105bek, K., Fidler, M., \u015amigielski, K., and Gutarowska, B. (2022). Antimicrobial activities of plant extracts against Solanum tuberosum L. phytopathogens. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27051579"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3399","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00113-14","article-title":"Identification of AP80978, a novel small-molecule inhibitor of hepatitis C virus replication that targets NS4B","volume":"58","author":"Briley","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scaturro, P., Cortese, M., Chatel-Chaix, L., Fischl, W., and Bartenschlager, R. (2015). Dengue virus non-structural protein 1 modulates infectious particle production via interaction with the structural proteins. PLoS Pathog., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005277"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-62703-484-5_17","article-title":"High-throughput screening using dengue virus reporter genomes","volume":"Volume 1030","author":"Gong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antiviral Methods and Protocols"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11503","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01640-08","article-title":"Role of the hepatitis C virus core+ 1 open reading frame and core cis-acting RNA elements in viral RNA translation and replication","volume":"82","author":"Vassilaki","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01429-12","article-title":"A novel inhibitor of dengue virus replication that targets the capsid protein","volume":"57","author":"Byrd","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Z., Ren, Z., Zhang, J., Chuang, C.C., Kandaswamy, E., Zhou, T., and Zuo, L. (2018). Role of ROS and nutritional antioxidants in human diseases. Front. Physiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.00477"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.2478\/acs-2019-0028","article-title":"Selected methods to determine antioxidant activity of hydrophilic\/lipophilic substances","volume":"12","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Chim. Slovaca"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1080\/14756366.2017.1284068","article-title":"A new colorimetric DPPH\u2022 scavenging activity method with no need for a spectrophotometer applied on synthetic and natural antioxidants and medicinal herbs","volume":"32","author":"Akar","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Enzym. Inhib. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jadid, N., Hidayati, D., Hartanti, S.R., Arraniry, B.A., Rachman, R.Y., and Wikanta, W. (2017, January 26). Antioxidant activities of different solvent extracts of Piper retrofractum Vahl. using DPPH assay. Proceedings of the International Biology Conference, Dresden, Germany.","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4985410"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, M., Gouvinhas, I., Rocha, J., and Barros, A.I. (2021). Phytochemical and antioxidant analysis of medicinal and food plants towards bioactive food and pharmaceutical resources. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-89437-4"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Muscolo, A., Mariateresa, O., Giulio, T., and Mariateresa, R. (2024). Oxidative stress: The role of antioxidant phytochemicals in the prevention and treatment of diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25063264"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"53","article-title":"Polyphenolic contents, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of aqueous extracts of Eucalyptus globulus L. and Trigonella foenum-greacum L.","volume":"15","author":"Bencheikh","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2602454","DOI":"10.1155\/2023\/2602454","article-title":"Antioxidant, Antimicrobial Activities, and Characterization of Phenolic Compounds of Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), Sage (Salvia officinalis L.), and Thyme\u2013Sage Mixture Extracts","volume":"2023","author":"Mokhtari","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Food Qual."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"59","article-title":"In vitro screening for acetylcholinesterase inhibition and antioxidant potential in different extracts of sage (Salvia officinalis L.) and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.)","volume":"10","author":"Sharma","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Biol. Act. Prod. Nat."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1080\/0972060X.2013.793989","article-title":"Chemical profiling and antioxidant activity of Thai basil (Ocimum basilicum)","volume":"19","author":"Naidu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants"},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"107","article-title":"Folin\u2013Ciocalteu method for the measurement of total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity","volume":"6","year":"2018","journal-title":"Meas. Antioxid. Act. Capacit. Recent Trends Appl."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Yahia, E.M. (2019). Phenolic Compounds. Postharvest Physiology and Biochemistry of Fruits and Vegetables, Woodhead Publishing. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2872","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2005.11.004","article-title":"Structure\u2013radical scavenging activity relationships of phenolic compounds from traditional Chinese medicinal plants","volume":"78","author":"Cai","year":"2006","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.12692\/ijb\/5.9.213-222","article-title":"Antioxidant activity and total phenolic compound content of certain medicinal plants","volume":"5","author":"Karamova","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2012.08.033","article-title":"Correlation of total polyphenolic content with antioxidant and antibacterial activity of 24 extracts from Greek domestic Lamiaceae species","volume":"50","author":"Stagos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zargoosh, Z., Ghavam, M., Bacchetta, G., and Tavili, A. (2019). Effects of ecological factors on the antioxidant potential and total phenol content of Scrophularia striata Boiss. Sci. Rep., 9.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-52605-8"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsakni, A., Chatzilazarou, A., Tsakali, E., Tsantes, A.G., Van Impe, J., and Houhoula, D. (2023). Identification of Bioactive Compounds in Plant Extracts of Greek Flora and Their Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity. Separations, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/separations10070373"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vaou, N., Stavropoulou, E., Voidarou, C., Tsigalou, C., and Bezirtzoglou, E. (2021). Towards advances in medicinal plant antimicrobial activity: A review study on challenges and future perspectives. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9102041"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1895340","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/1895340","article-title":"In vitro antimicrobial activity of some medicinal plants against human pathogenic bacteria","volume":"2019","author":"Manandhar","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Trop. Med."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjbs.2020.08.015","article-title":"Antimicrobial effect of different herbal plant extracts against different microbial population","volume":"27","author":"Hemeg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Saudi J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silhavy, T.J., Kahne, D., and Walker, S. (2010). The bacterial cell envelope. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol., 2.","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a000414"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.4103\/joacp.JOACP_349_15","article-title":"Action and resistance mechanisms of antibiotics: A guide for clinicians","volume":"33","author":"Kapoor","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Anaesthesiol. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1128\/microbiolspec.GPP3-0044-2018","article-title":"The Gram-positive bacterial cell wall","volume":"7","author":"Rohde","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Camargo, A.C., Concepci\u00f3n Alvarez, A., Arias-Sant\u00e9, M.F., Oyarz\u00fan, J.E., Andia, M.E., Uribe, S., Pizarro, P.N., Bustos, S.M., Schwember, A.R., and Shahidi, F. (2022). Soluble free, esterified and insoluble-bound phenolic antioxidants from chickpeas prevent cytotoxicity in human hepatoma HuH-7 cells induced by peroxyl radicals. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11061139"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.4103\/2394-5079.167378","article-title":"Effects of natural compounds in treatment and prevention of hepatotoxicity and hepatocellular carcinoma","volume":"1","author":"Hamzawy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hepatoma Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rudrapal, M., Khairnar, S.J., Khan, J., Dukhyil, A.B., Ansari, M.A., Alomary, M.N., Alshabrmi, F.M., Palai, S., Deb, P.K., and Devi, R. (2022). Dietary polyphenols and their role in oxidative stress-induced human diseases: Insights into protective effects, antioxidant potentials and mechanism (s) of action. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.806470"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13346","DOI":"10.1111\/cpr.13346","article-title":"Polyphenols as potential metabolism mechanisms regulators in liver protection and liver cancer prevention","volume":"56","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Prolif."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Machado, I.F., Miranda, R.G., Dorta, D.J., Rolo, A.P., and Palmeira, C.M. (2023). Targeting oxidative stress with polyphenols to fight liver diseases. Antioxidants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox12061212"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3188","DOI":"10.1039\/C8FO02466A","article-title":"Eucalyptus globulus Labill. decoction extract inhibits the growth of NCI-H460 cells by increasing the p53 levels and altering the cell cycle profile","volume":"10","author":"Teixeira","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martins-Gomes, C., Nunes, F.M., and Silva, A.M. (2023). Modulation of cell death pathways for cellular protection and anti-tumoral activity: The role of Thymus spp. extracts and their bioactive molecules. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24021691"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohammed, H.A., Eldeeb, H.M., Khan, R.A., Al-Omar, M.S., Mohammed, S.A., Sajid, M.S., Aly, M.S.A., Ahmad, A.M., Abdellatif, A.A.H., and Eid, S.Y. (2021). Sage, Salvia officinalis L., constituents, hepatoprotective activity, and cytotoxicity evaluations of the essential oils obtained from fresh and differently timed dried herbs: A comparative analysis. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26195757"},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"303","article-title":"Bioactive potential of secondary metabolites derived from medicinal plant endophytes","volume":"5","author":"Palanichamy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Basic Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/S2222-1808(14)60635-6","article-title":"Ethanol extracts of Cassia grandis and Tabernaemontana cymosa inhibit the in vitro replication of dengue virus serotype 2","volume":"5","year":"2015","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2005.02.001","article-title":"The antiviral activity of sulfated polysaccharides against dengue virus is dependent on virus serotype and host cell","volume":"66","author":"Talarico","year":"2005","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loaiza-Cano, V., Monsalve-Escudero, L.M., Filho, C.D.S.M.B., Martinez-Gutierrez, M., and Sousa, D.P.D. (2020). Antiviral role of phenolic compounds against dengue virus: A review. Biomolecules, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom11010011"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149719","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.149719","article-title":"Polyphenols and their potential role to fight viral diseases: An overview","volume":"801","author":"Vecino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110711","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2024.110711","article-title":"Cordycepin exhibits both antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects against dengue virus infection","volume":"27","author":"Songprakhon","year":"2024","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155986","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phymed.2024.155986","article-title":"Effects of the oxoaporphine alkaloid hernandonine on dengue virus. Evidence for its mechanisms of action","volume":"134","author":"Liao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Phytomedicine"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1007\/s00425-024-04529-5","article-title":"Bio-control of soil-borne virus infection by seed application of Glycyrrhiza glabra extract and the rhamnolipid Rhapynal","volume":"260","author":"Fomitcheva","year":"2024","journal-title":"Planta"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, J.K., Choi, J.W., Park, I., Kim, N.E., Kwon, H.C., Kwon, J., and Song, Y.J. (2024). Roseoside Is a Bioactive Compound in Kirengeshoma koreana Nakai Extract with Potent In Vitro Antiviral Activity Against Hepatitis C Virus. Molecules, 29.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules29215130"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fayez, D., Youssif, A., Sabry, S., Ghozlan, H., and El-Sayed, F. (2023). Some novel bioactivities of Virgibacillus halodenitrificans carotenoids, isolated from Wadi El-Natrun lakes. Saudi J. Biol. Sci., 30.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjbs.2023.103825"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joshi, R.K., Agarwal, S., Patil, P., Alagarasu, K., Panda, K., Cherian, S., Parashar, D., and Roy, S. (2023). Anti-dengue activity of lipophilic fraction of Ocimum basilicum L. Stem. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28031446"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfda.2018.05.010","article-title":"Antioxidant activity, neuroprotective properties and bioactive constituents analysis of varying polarity extracts from Eucalyptus globulus leaves","volume":"26","author":"Liaudanskas","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Food Drug Anal."},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"605","article-title":"Polyphenols in the aqueous extracts of garden thyme (Thymus vulgaris) chemotypes cultivated in Hungary","volume":"8","author":"Rak","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Commun."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2016.07.027","article-title":"Infusions from Thymus vulgaris L. treated at different gamma radiation doses: Effects on antioxidant activity and phenolic composition","volume":"74","author":"Pereira","year":"2016","journal-title":"LWT"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e55423","DOI":"10.4025\/actascitechnol.v43i1.55423","article-title":"Macronutrients, vitamins, minerals and bioactive compounds in fresh and dehydrated basil (Ocimum basilicum) and its hot and cold infusion","volume":"43","author":"Roberto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Sci."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, P.G.D., Chaves, E.J.F., Silva, T.M.S., Rocha, G.B., Dantas, W.M., Oliveira, R.N.D., and Pena, L.J. (2023). Antiviral activity of flavonoids from Geopropolis of the Brazilian Jandaira bee against zika and dengue viruses. Pharmaceutics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics15102494"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frabasile, S., Koishi, A.C., Kuczera, D., Silveira, G.F., Verri, W.A., Duarte dos Santos, C.N., and Bordignon, J. (2017). The citrus flavanone naringenin impairs dengue virus replication in human cells. Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep41864"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.51585\/gjm.2021.0005","article-title":"Molecular docking study of Lens culinaris L. phytochemicals to NS3-NS2B protease of dengue virus serotype 2","volume":"1","author":"Bondhon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ger. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1111\/ijfs.12944","article-title":"Extraction, optimisation and characterisation of phenolics from Thymus vulgaris L.: Phenolic content and profiles in relation to antioxidant, antidiabetic and antihypertensive properties","volume":"51","author":"Rababah","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmc.2014.12.015","article-title":"Flavonoids as noncompetitive inhibitors of Dengue virus NS2B-NS3 protease: Inhibition kinetics and docking studies","volume":"23","author":"Wu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alomair, L., Almsned, F., Ullah, A., and Jafri, M.S. (2021). In silico prediction of the phosphorylation of NS3 as an essential mechanism for dengue virus replication and the antiviral activity of quercetin. Biology, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology10101067"},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"11","article-title":"In silico study of 5, 7-dimethoxycoumarin and p-coumaric acid in Carica papaya leaves as dengue virus type 2 protease inhibitors","volume":"79","author":"Rathnayake","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proceedings"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2017.03.026","article-title":"Luteolin restricts dengue virus replication through inhibition of the proprotein convertase furin","volume":"143","author":"Peng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.4103\/ijp.IJP_576_19","article-title":"In silico binding analysis of lutein and rosmarinic acid against envelope domain III protein of dengue virus","volume":"53","author":"Panchal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Indian J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panchal, R., Ghosh, S., Mehla, R., Ramalingam, J., Gairola, S., Mukherjee, S., and Chowdhary, A. (2022). Antiviral activity of rosmarinic acid against four serotypes of dengue virus. Curr. Microbiol., 79.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00284-022-02889-3"}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/13\/1\/177\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:29:36Z","timestamp":1759919376000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/13\/1\/177"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]]},"references-count":98,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms13010177"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms13010177","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,16]]}}}