{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T07:55:36Z","timestamp":1788249336536,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,21]],"date-time":"2025-04-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1745193600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Antibiotic resistance is a well-documented global health challenge that disproportionately impacts low- and middle-income countries. In 2019, the number of deaths attributed to and associated with antibiotic resistance in Western Sub-Saharan Africa was approximately 27 and 115 per 100,000, respectively, higher than in other regions worldwide. Extensive research has consistently confirmed the persistent presence and spread of antibiotic resistance in hospitals, among livestock, within food supply chains, and across various environmental contexts. This review documents the environmental risk factors contributing to the spread of antibiotic resistance in West Africa. We collected studies from multiple West African countries using the Web of Science and PubMed databases. We screened them for factors associated with antibiotic-resistant bacteria and resistance genes between 2018 and 2024. Our findings indicate that antibiotic resistance remains a significant concern in West Africa, with environmental pollution and waste management identified as major factors in the proliferation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and resistance genes between 2018 and 2024. Additional contributing factors include poor hygiene, the use of antibiotics in agriculture, aquaculture, and animal farming, and the transmission of antibiotic resistance within hospital settings. Unfortunately, the lack of comprehensive genetic characterization of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and resistance genes hinders a thorough understanding of this critical issue in the region. Since antibiotic resistance transcends national borders and can spread within and between countries, it is essential to understand the environmental risk factors driving its dissemination in West African countries. Such understanding will be instrumental in developing and recommending effective strategies nationally and internationally to combat antibiotic resistance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13040951","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,21]],"date-time":"2025-04-21T01:43:16Z","timestamp":1745199796000},"page":"951","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Environmental Risk Factors Contributing to the Spread of Antibiotic Resistance in West Africa"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9714-0864","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adenike","family":"Adenaya","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM), University of Oldenburg, Carl von Ossietzky Str. 9-11, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9644-5084","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adedapo Adedayo","family":"Adeniran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacognosy and Natural Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Calabar, Calabar 540211, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-5441-7311","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chidera Linus","family":"Ugwuoke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 240281, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kaosara","family":"Saliu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 240281, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mariam Adewumi","family":"Raji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 240281, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amartya","family":"Rakshit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM), University of Oldenburg, Carl von Ossietzky Str. 9-11, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3318-5462","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariana","family":"Ribas-Ribas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Marine Sensors (ZfMarS), Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM), Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, 26380 Wilhelmshaven, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"K\u00f6nneke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM), University of Oldenburg, Carl von Ossietzky Str. 9-11, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmni.2015.02.007","article-title":"The global threat of antimicrobial resistance: Science for intervention","volume":"6","author":"Roca","year":"2015","journal-title":"New Microbes New Infect."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2019.10.008","article-title":"Antibiotics: Past, present and future","volume":"51","author":"Hutchings","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. 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