{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T16:05:35Z","timestamp":1789056335738,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":175,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,10]],"date-time":"2025-05-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1746835200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The gut microbiota represents a rich and adaptive microbial network inhabiting the gastrointestinal tract, performing key functions in nutrient processing, immune response modulation, intestinal wall protection, and microbial defense. Its composition remains highly personalized and responsive to external influences, including lifestyle patterns, physical activity, body composition, and nutritional intake. The interactions of the gut microbiota with bodily systems are conventionally interpreted as broad systemic impacts on organ balance. Yet, emerging research\u2014exemplified by the gut microbiota\u2013brain axis\u2014suggests the potential existence of more targeted and direct communication mechanisms. Dysbiosis, characterized by microbial ecosystem disturbance, generates multiple metabolic compounds capable of entering systemic circulation and reaching distant tissues, notably including ocular structures. This microbial imbalance has been associated with both systemic and localized conditions linked to eye disorders. Accumulating scientific evidence now supports the concept of a gut\u2013retina axis, underscoring the significant role of microbiota disruption in generating various retinal pathologies. This review comprehensively investigates gut microbiota composition, functional dynamics, and dysbiosis-induced alterations, with specific focus on retinal interactions in age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, and retinal artery occlusion. Moreover, the review explores microbiota-targeted therapeutic strategies, including precision nutritional interventions and microbial transplantation, as potential modulators of retinal disease progression.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13051101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,12]],"date-time":"2025-05-12T04:21:23Z","timestamp":1747023683000},"page":"1101","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Exploring the Gut Microbiota\u2013Retina Axis: Implications for Health and Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1592-4244","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicola","family":"Schiavone","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences \u201cMario Serio\u201d, Section of Experimental Pathology and Oncology, University of Florence, 50134 Florence, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giulia","family":"Isoldi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences \u201cMario Serio\u201d, Section of Experimental Pathology and Oncology, University of Florence, 50134 Florence, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sara","family":"Calcagno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences \u201cMario Serio\u201d, Section of Experimental Pathology and Oncology, University of Florence, 50134 Florence, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5949-3239","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisabetta","family":"Rovida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences \u201cMario Serio\u201d, Section of Experimental Pathology and Oncology, University of Florence, 50134 Florence, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7787-4433","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emiliano","family":"Antiga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, Section of Dermatology, University of Florence, 50139 Florence, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4515-798X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carolina Vieira","family":"De Almeida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences \u201cMario Serio\u201d, Section of Experimental Pathology and Oncology, University of Florence, 50134 Florence, Italy"},{"name":"Press Start SRL Societ\u00e0 Benefit, 50134 Florence, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8528-4094","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matteo","family":"Lulli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences \u201cMario Serio\u201d, Section of Experimental Pathology and Oncology, University of Florence, 50134 Florence, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-020-00814-z","article-title":"Microbiomes Other than the Gut: Inflammaging and Age-Related Diseases","volume":"42","author":"Santoro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Semin. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1038\/s41574-018-0059-4","article-title":"Inflammaging: A New Immune-Metabolic Viewpoint for Age-Related Diseases","volume":"14","author":"Franceschi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1097\/MCO.0000000000000242","article-title":"Microbiota and Aging","volume":"19","author":"Bischoff","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaudhry, T.S., Senapati, S.G., Gadam, S., Mannam, H.P.S.S., Voruganti, H.V., Abbasi, Z., Abhinav, T., Challa, A.B., Pallipamu, N., and Bheemisetty, N. (2023). The Impact of Microbiota on the Gut-Brain Axis: Examining the Complex Interplay and Implications. J. Clin. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12165231"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2014.08.003","article-title":"Metabolic Control of Regulatory T Cell Development and Function","volume":"36","author":"Zeng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"T\u00eerziu, A.T., Susan, M., Susan, R., Sonia, T., Harich, O.O., Tudora, A., Varga, N.I., Tiberiu-Liviu, D., Avram, C.R., and Boru, C. (2024). From Gut to Eye: Exploring the Role of Microbiome Imbalance in Ocular Diseases. J. Clin. Med., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13185611"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E4472","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1702302114","article-title":"Involvement of a gut-retina axis in protection against dietary glycemia-induced age-related macular degeneration","volume":"114","author":"Rowan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zinkernagel, M.S., Zysset-Burri, D.C., Keller, I., Berger, L.E., Leichtle, A.B., Largiad\u00e8r, C.R., Fiedler, G.M., and Wolf, S. (2017). Association of the Intestinal Microbiome with the Development of Neovascular Age-Related Macular Degeneration. Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep40826"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fu, X., Tan, H., Huang, L., Chen, W., Ren, X., and Chen, D. (2023). Gut Microbiota and Eye Diseases: A Bibliometric Study and Visualization Analysis. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2023.1225859"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rinninella, E., Mele, M.C., Merendino, N., Cintoni, M., Anselmi, G., Caporossi, A., Gasbarrini, A., and Minnella, A.M. (2018). The Role of Diet, Micronutrients and the Gut Microbiota in Age-Related Macular Degeneration: New Perspectives from the Gut-Retina Axis. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201810.0369.v1"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xue, W., Li, J.J., Zou, Y., Zou, B., and Wei, L. (2021). Microbiota and Ocular Diseases. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.759333"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mpakosi, A., Sokou, R., Theodoraki, M., Iacovidou, N., Cholevas, V., Tsantes, A.G., Liakou, A.I., Drogari-Apiranthitou, M., and Kaliouli-Antonopoulou, C. (2025). The Role of Infant and Early Childhood Gut Virome in Immunity and the Triggering of Autoimmunity-A Narrative Review. Diagnostics, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics15040413"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1006","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-021-00383-w","article-title":"Host\/microbiota interactions in health and diseases\u2014Time for mucosal microbiology!","volume":"14","author":"Daniel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e50240","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.50240","article-title":"Adjusting for age improves identification of gut microbiome alterations in multiple diseases","volume":"9","author":"Ghosh","year":"2020","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1174","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2020-323071","article-title":"Gut microbiota-derived metabolites as central regulators in metabolic disorders","volume":"70","author":"Agus","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kammoun, S., Rekik, M., Dlensi, A., Aloulou, S., Smaoui, W., Sellami, S., Trigui, K., Gargouri, R., Chaari, I., and Sellami, H. (2024). The gut-eye axis: The retinal\/ocular degenerative diseases and the emergent therapeutic strategies. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 18.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2024.1468187"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2019.05.005","article-title":"Daily sampling reveals personalized diet-microbiome associations in humans","volume":"25","author":"Johnson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"12971","article-title":"Gut microbiota and its metabolic potential","volume":"24","author":"Czajkowska","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lei, L., Zhao, N., Zhang, L., Chen, J., Liu, X., and Piao, S. (2022). Gut microbiota is a potential goalkeeper of dyslipidemia. Front. Endocrinol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.950826"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1038\/s42255-024-01191-9","article-title":"Short-chain fatty acid metabolites propionate and butyrate are unique epigenetic regulatory elements linking diet, metabolism, and gene expression","volume":"7","author":"Nshanian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Metab."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kopczy\u0144ska, J., and Kowalczyk, M. (2024). The potential of short-chain fatty acid epigenetic regulation in chronic low-grade inflammation and obesity. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1380476"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1007\/s00432-018-2816-0","article-title":"Microbiota in cancer development and treatment","volume":"145","author":"Raza","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1007\/s12072-021-10230-6","article-title":"Effect of microbiota metabolites on the progression of chronic hepatitis B virus infection","volume":"15","author":"Sun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hepatol. Int."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14704","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.14704","article-title":"Deciphering the intricate linkage between the gut microbiota and Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Elucidating mechanistic pathways promising therapeutic strategies","volume":"30","author":"Liang","year":"2024","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci. Ther."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.4106","article-title":"Type I interferons and microbial metabolites of tryptophan modulate astrocyte activity and central nervous system inflammation via the aryl hydrocarbon receptor","volume":"22","author":"Rothhammer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, X., Xu, D., Yu, J., Song, X.J., Li, X., and Cui, Y.L. (2024). Tryptophan Metabolism Disorder-Triggered Diseases, Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Strategies: A Scientometric Review. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16193380"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.12401","article-title":"Dietary Amino Acids and the Gut-Microbiome-Immune Axis: Physiological Metabolism and Therapeutic Prospects","volume":"18","author":"Ma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.2174\/1389201022666210104115836","article-title":"Gut Microbiota and Human Body Interactions; Its Impact on Health: A Review","volume":"23","author":"Hajiagha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reinold, J., Farahpour, F., Fehring, C., Dolff, S., Konik, M., Korth, J., van Baal, L., Hoffmann, D., Buer, J., and Witzke, O. (2021). A Pro-Inflammatory Gut Microbiome Characterizes SARS-CoV-2 Infected Patients and a Reduction in the Connectivity of an Anti-Inflammatory Bacterial Network Associates with Severe COVID-19. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.747816"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., Zhu, N., Su, X., Gao, Y., and Yang, R. (2023). Gut-Microbiota-Derived Metabolites Maintain Gut and Systemic Immune Homeostasis. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12050793"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, X., and Mu, X. (2024). Systematic Insights into the Relationship between the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis and Stroke with the Focus on Tryptophan Metabolism. Metabolites, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo14080399"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vera-Urbina, F., Dos Santos-Torres, M.F., Godoy-Vitorino, F., and Torres-Hern\u00e1ndez, B.A. (2022). The Gut Microbiome May Help Address Mental Health Disparities in Hispanics: A Narrative Review. Microorganisms, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10040763"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.4062\/biomolther.2024.009","article-title":"Gut Microbiota Metabolite Messengers in Brain Function and Pathology at a View of Cell Type-Based Receptor and Enzyme Reaction","volume":"32","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leeuwendaal, N.K., Stanton, C., O\u2019Toole, P.W., and Beresford, T.P. (2022). Fermented Foods, Health and the Gut Microbiome. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14071527"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mousa, W.K., Chehadeh, F., and Husband, S. (2022). Recent Advances in Understanding the Structure and Function of the Human Microbiome. Front. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.825338"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2019.10.005","article-title":"Microbial metabolite signaling is required for systemic iron homeostasis","volume":"31","author":"Das","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2010.08.003","article-title":"Intestinal Ferritin H is required for an accurate control of iron absorption","volume":"12","author":"Vanoaica","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"962","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2018.10.029","article-title":"US immigration westernizes the human gut microbiome","volume":"175","author":"Batres","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101923","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpg.2024.101923","article-title":"The microbiome-driven impact of Western diet in the development of noncommunicable chronic disorders","volume":"72","author":"Severino","year":"2024","journal-title":"Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105604","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2020.105604","article-title":"Air pollution exposure is associated with the gut microbiome as revealed by shotgun metagenomic sequencing","volume":"138","author":"Fouladi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2018.1562268","article-title":"Exercise influence on the microbiome-gut-brain axis","volume":"10","author":"Dalton","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, S.H., Yun, Y., Kim, S.J., Lee, E.J., Chang, Y., Ryu, S., Shin, H., Kim, H.L., Kim, H.N., and Lee, J.H. (2018). Association between cigarette smoking status and composition of gut microbiota: Population-based cross-sectional study. J. Clin. Med., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm7090282"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14315","DOI":"10.1111\/acel.14315","article-title":"The connection between aging, cellular senescence and gut microbiome alterations: A comprehensive review","volume":"23","author":"Jang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Aging Cell"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109765","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2021.109765","article-title":"Age and the aging process significantly alter the small bowel microbiome","volume":"36","author":"Leite","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-019-0258-z","article-title":"Gut microbiota-derived metabolites as key actors in inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"17","author":"Lavelle","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2769","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)32448-0","article-title":"Worldwide incidence and prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease in the 21st century: A systematic review of population-based studies","volume":"390","author":"Ng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maltz, R.M., Keirsey, J., Kim, S.C., Mackos, A.R., Gharaibeh, R.Z., Moore, C.C., Xu, J., Bakthavatchalu, V., Somogyi, A., and Bailey, M.T. (2018). Prolonged restraint stressor exposure in outbred CD-1 mice impacts microbiota, colonic inflammation, and short chain fatty acids. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0196961"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1510","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2019-320204","article-title":"Interaction between drugs and the gut microbiome","volume":"69","author":"Weersma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1366","DOI":"10.15252\/emmm.201606531","article-title":"Gut microbiota influences pathological angiogenesis in obesity-driven choroidal neovascularization","volume":"8","author":"Andriessen","year":"2016","journal-title":"EMBO Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gomes-Neto, J.C., Kittana, H., Mantz, S., Segura Munoz, R.R., Schmaltz, R.J., Bindels, L.B., Clarke, J., Hostetter, J.M., Benson, A.K., and Walter, J. (2017). A gut pathobiont synergizes with the microbiota to instigate inflammatory disease marked by immunoreactivity against other symbionts but not itself. Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-18014-5"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14190","DOI":"10.1111\/acel.14190","article-title":"Aging amplifies a gut microbiota immunogenic signature linked to heightened inflammation","volume":"23","author":"Shrestha","year":"2024","journal-title":"Aging Cell"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guarino, M.P.L., Altomare, A., Emerenziani, S., Di Rosa, C., Ribolsi, M., Balestrieri, P., Iovino, P., Rocchi, G., and Cicala, M. (2020). Mechanisms of action of prebiotics and their effects on gastro-intestinal disorders in adults. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12041037"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2723","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.101583","article-title":"Long-term intake of Lactobacillus paracasei KW3110 prevents age-related chronic inflammation and retinal cell loss in physiologically aged mice","volume":"10","author":"Morita","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aging"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1002\/zoo.21751","article-title":"Fecal microbiota transplants modulate the gut microbiome of a two-toed sloth (Choloepus didactylus)","volume":"42","author":"Thacher","year":"2023","journal-title":"Zoo Biol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yaqub, M.O., Jain, A., Joseph, C.E., and Edison, L.K. (2025). Microbiome-Driven Therapeutics: From Gut Health to Precision Medicine. Gastrointest. Disord., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/gidisord7010007"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2020.06.007","article-title":"The bidirectional nature of microbiome-epithelial cell interactions","volume":"56","author":"Solis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nai, S., Song, J., Su, W., and Liu, X. (2025). Bidirectional Interplay Among Non-Coding RNAs, the Microbiome, and the Host During Development and Diseases. Genes, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes16020208"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.3920\/BM2017.0013","article-title":"Faecal microRNAs: Indicators of imbalance at the host-microbe interface?","volume":"9","author":"Moloney","year":"2018","journal-title":"Benef. Microbes"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2015.12.005","article-title":"The Host Shapes the Gut Microbiota via Fecal MicroRNA","volume":"19","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-019-0406-6","article-title":"Meta-analysis of fecal metagenomes reveals global microbial signatures that are specific for colorectal cancer","volume":"25","author":"Wirbel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flanagan, K., Gassner, K., Lang, M., Ozelyte, J., Hausmann, B., Crepaz, D., Pjevac, P., Gasche, C., Berry, D., and Vesely, C. (2025). Human-derived microRNA 21 regulates indole and L-tryptophan biosynthesis transcripts in the gut commensal Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron. mBio, 16.","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.03928-24"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0078324","DOI":"10.1128\/msystems.00783-24","article-title":"Profiles and interactions of gut microbiome and intestinal microRNAs in pediatric Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"9","author":"Lv","year":"2024","journal-title":"mSystems"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2394249","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2024.2394249","article-title":"Fecal let-7b and miR-21 directly modulate the intestinal microbiota, driving chronic inflammation","volume":"16","author":"Roy","year":"2024","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymthe.2021.08.025","article-title":"Fecal miR-142a-3p from dextran sulfate sodium-challenge recovered mice prevents colitis by promoting the growth of Lactobacillus reuteri","volume":"30","author":"He","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2091369","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2022.2091369","article-title":"Intestinal accumulation of microbiota-produced succinate caused by loss of microRNAs leads to diarrhea in weanling piglets","volume":"14","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2023.05.037","article-title":"A Fecal MicroRNA Signature by Small RNA Sequencing Accurately Distinguishes Colorectal Cancers: Results from a Multicenter Study","volume":"165","author":"Pardini","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1302","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2021-325168","article-title":"Stool microRNA profiles reflect different dietary and gut microbiome patterns in healthy individuals","volume":"71","author":"Tarallo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2024.10.012","article-title":"Nondigestible stachyose binds membranous HSP90\u03b2 on small intestinal epithelium to regulate the exosomal miRNAs: A new function and mechanism","volume":"37","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2018.10.001","article-title":"Plant-Derived Exosomal MicroRNAs Shape the Gut Microbiota","volume":"24","author":"Teng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1186\/s10020-020-00234-7","article-title":"The roles of the gut microbiota-miRNA interaction in the host pathophysiology","volume":"26","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104774","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2020.10.009","article-title":"Sending signals\u2014The microbiota\u2019s contribution to intestinal epithelial homeostasis","volume":"23","author":"Goyal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stanton, B.A. (2021). Extracellular Vesicles and Host-Pathogen Interactions: A Review of Inter-Kingdom Signaling by Small Noncoding RNA. Genes, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes12071010"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-28454-x","article-title":"Translocated Legionella pneumophila small RNAs mimic eukaryotic microRNAs targeting the host immune response","volume":"13","author":"Sahr","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moriano-Gutierrez, S., Bongrand, C., Essock-Burns, T., Wu, L., McFall-Ngai, M.J., and Ruby, E.G. (2020). The noncoding small RNA SsrA is released by Vibrio fischeri and modulates critical host responses. PLoS Biol., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3000934"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-nutr-071715-050711","article-title":"Sources and Functions of Extracellular Small RNAs in Human Circulation","volume":"36","author":"Fritz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, H., and Mo, Y. (2023). The gut-retina axis: A new perspective in the prevention and treatment of diabetic retinopathy. Front. Endocrinol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2023.1205846"},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"143","article-title":"A narrative review on dietary components and patterns and age-related macular degeneration","volume":"38","author":"Arslan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nutr. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haas-Neill, S., and Forsythe, P. (2020). A Budding Relationship: Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles in the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21238899"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2016.09.002","article-title":"Psychobiotics and the Manipulation of Bacteria-Gut-Brain Signals","volume":"39","author":"Sarkar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4030","article-title":"Host Microbiota Constantly Control Maturation and Function of Microglia in the CNS","volume":"18","author":"Erny","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sj\u00f6str\u00f6m, A.E., Sandblad, L., Uhlin, B.E., and Wai, S.N. (2015). Membrane Vesicle-Mediated Release of Bacterial RNA. Sci. Rep., 5.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep15329"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12159","DOI":"10.1002\/jev2.12159","article-title":"Visualizing Transfer of Microbial Biomolecules by Outer Membrane Vesicles in Microbe-Host-Communication in Vivo","volume":"10","author":"Bittel","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schaack, B., Hindr\u00e9, T., Quansah, N., Hannani, D., Mercier, C., and Laurin, D. (2022). Microbiota-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Detected in Human Blood from Healthy Donors. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232213787"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1080\/09687688.2017.1400602","article-title":"Bacterial Outer Membrane Vesicles: New Insights and Applications","volume":"33","author":"Anand","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Membr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-019-0359-3","article-title":"Lactobacillus paracasei-derived extracellular vesicles attenuate the intestinal inflammatory response by augmenting the endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway","volume":"52","author":"Choi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2211184","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2023.2211184","article-title":"SaaS sRNA promotes Salmonella intestinal invasion via modulating MAPK inflammatory pathway","volume":"15","author":"Cai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Diallo, I., Ho, J., Lambert, M., Benmoussa, A., Husseini, Z., Lalaouna, D., Mass\u00e9, E., and Provost, P. (2022). A tRNA-derived fragment present in E. coli OMVs regulates host cell gene expression and proliferation. PLoS Pathog., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1010827"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koeppen, K., Hampton, T.H., Jarek, M., Scharfe, M., Gerber, S.A., Mielcarz, D.W., Demers, E.G., Dolben, E.L., Hammond, J.H., and Hogan, D.A. (2016). A novel mechanism of host-pathogen interaction through sRNA in bacterial outer membrane vesicles. PLoS Pathog., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005672"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4592","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1011383107","article-title":"Human oral, gut, and plaque microbiota in patients with atherosclerosis","volume":"108","author":"Koren","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, L., Ishigami, T., Doi, H., Arakawa, K., and Tamura, K. (2021). The types and proportions of commensal microbiota have a predictive value in coronary heart disease. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10143120"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1387","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2024.01.040","article-title":"CRB1-associated retinal degeneration is dependent on bacterial translocation from the gut","volume":"187","author":"Peng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manrique, P., Dills, M., and Young, M.J. (2017). The Human Gut Phage Community and Its Implications for Health and Disease. Viruses, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/v9060141"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1299","DOI":"10.1007\/s00439-021-02300-4","article-title":"IFIH1 loss-of-function variants contribute to very early-onset inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"140","author":"Cananzi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arabi, S., Pourazizi, M., Heidari-Beni, M., Yazdi, M., and Kelishadi, R. (2025). Association of childhood obesity on retinal microvasculature and the role of biochemical markers for its early detection. BMC Ophthalmol., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12886-025-03942-y"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5836","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v23.i32.5836","article-title":"Ophthalmic manifestations in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: A review","volume":"23","author":"Troncoso","year":"2017","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2014.12.001","article-title":"The fungal microbiota of de-novo paediatric inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"17","author":"Mukhopadhya","year":"2015","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2016.05.018","article-title":"The Fungal Mycobiota: Small Numbers, Large Impacts","volume":"19","author":"Kumamoto","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"591","article-title":"Higher diversity in fungal species discriminates children with type 1 diabetes mellitus from healthy control","volume":"10","author":"Kowalewska","year":"2016","journal-title":"Patient Prefer. Adherence"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mar Rodr\u00edguez, M., P\u00e9rez, D., Javier Chaves, F., Esteve, E., Marin-Garcia, P., Xifra, G., Vendrell, J., Jov\u00e9, M., Pamplona, R., and Ricart, W. (2015). Obesity changes the human gut mycobiome. Sci. Rep., 5.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep14600"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jayasudha, R., Das, T., Kalyana Chakravarthy, S., Sai Prashanthi, G., Bhargava, A., Tyagi, M., Rani, P.K., Pappuru, R.R., and Shivaji, S. (2020). Gut mycobiomes are altered in people with type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Diabetic Retinopathy. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0243077"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Padakandla, S.R., Das, T., Sai Prashanthi, G., Angadi, K.K., Reddy, S.S., Reddy, G.B., and Shivaji, S. (2022). Gut mycobiome dysbiosis in rats showing retinal changes indicative of diabetic retinopathy. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0267080"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2023.26074","article-title":"Age-Related Macular Degeneration: A Review","volume":"331","author":"Fleckenstein","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Wang, T., Wan, Z., Bai, J., Xue, Y., Dai, R., Wang, M., and Peng, Q. (2023). Alterations of the Intestinal Microbiota in Age-Related Macular Degeneration. Front. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2023.1069325"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baldi, S., Pagliai, G., Di Gloria, L., Pallecchi, M., Barca, F., Pieri, B., Bartolucci, G., Ramazzotti, M., Amedei, A., and Palendri, G. (2024). Beneficial Effects of Micronutrient Supplementation in Restoring the Altered Microbiota and Gut-Retina Axis in Patients with Neovascular Age-Related Macular Degeneration-A Randomized Clinical Trial. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16223971"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1723","DOI":"10.18240\/ijo.2024.09.21","article-title":"Investigating the Causal Link Between Gut Microbiota and Dry Age-Related Macular Degeneration: A Bidirectional Mendelian Randomization Study","volume":"17","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108520","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2021.108520","article-title":"Short Chain Fatty Acids Inhibit Endotoxin-Induced Uveitis and Inflammatory Responses of Retinal Astrocytes","volume":"206","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3122","DOI":"10.3892\/etm.2017.4878","article-title":"Phascolarctobacterium Faecium Abundant Colonization in Human Gastrointestinal Tract","volume":"14","author":"Wu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, Y., Zhang, L., Wang, X., Yi, Y., Shan, Y., Liu, B., Zhou, Y., and L\u00fc, X. (2022). Roles of Intestinal Parabacteroides in Human Health and Diseases. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 369.","DOI":"10.1093\/femsle\/fnac072"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nicolini, G., Casini, G., Posarelli, C., Amato, R., Lulli, M., Balzan, S., and Forini, F. (2024). Thyroid Hormone Signaling in Retinal Development and Function: Implications for Diabetic Retinopathy and Age-Related Macular Degeneration. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25137364"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, M., Chu, J., Feng, S., Guo, C., Xue, B., He, K., and Li, L. (2023). Immunological Mechanisms of Inflammatory Diseases Caused by Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis: A Review. Biomed. Pharmacother., 164.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2023.114985"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Das, T., Jayasudha, R., Chakravarthy, S., Prashanthi, G.S., Bhargava, A., Tyagi, M., Rani, P.K., Pappuru, R.R., Sharma, S., and Shivaji, S. (2021). Alterations in the Gut Bacterial Microbiome in People with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Diabetic Retinopathy. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-82538-0"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, L., Yang, K., Li, C., Zhang, H., Yu, H., Chen, K., Yang, X., and Liu, L. (2022). Metagenomic Shotgun Sequencing and Metabolomic Profiling Identify Specific Human Gut Microbiota Associated with Diabetic Retinopathy in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.943325"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Y., Wang, Z., Ma, H., Ji, S., Chen, Z., Cui, Z., Chen, J., and Tang, S. (2021). Dysbiosis and Implication of the Gut Microbiota in Diabetic Retinopathy. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.646348"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, K., Zou, J., Fan, H., Hu, H., and You, Z. (2022). Causal Effects of Gut Microbiota on Diabetic Retinopathy: A Mendelian Randomization Study. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.930318"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-020-0433-9","article-title":"Gut Microbiota in Human Metabolic Health and Disease","volume":"19","author":"Fan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qin, X., Sun, J., Chen, S., Xu, Y., Lu, L., Lu, M., Li, J., Ma, Y., Lou, F., and Zou, H. (2024). Gut Microbiota Predict Retinopathy in Patients with Diabetes: A Longitudinal Cohort Study. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 108.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-024-13316-x"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2014.3192","article-title":"The Pathophysiology and Treatment of Glaucoma: A Review","volume":"311","author":"Weinreb","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107921","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2020.107921","article-title":"Gut Microbiota Compositional Profile and Serum Metabolic Phenotype in Patients with Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma","volume":"191","author":"Gong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, C., and Lu, P. (2023). Association of Gut Microbiota with Age-Related Macular Degeneration and Glaucoma: A Bidirectional Mendelian Randomization Study. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202310.0525.v1"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1111\/ceo.14440","article-title":"Investigating the Uncertain Causal Link Between Gut Microbiota and Glaucoma: A Genetic Correlation and Mendelian Randomisation Study","volume":"52","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3209","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-05681-9","article-title":"Commensal Microflora-Induced T Cell Responses Mediate Progressive Neurodegeneration in Glaucoma","volume":"9","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.18502\/jovr.v19i4.16559","article-title":"Retinal Artery Occlusion: A Review of Current Management Practices","volume":"19","author":"Yu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Ophthalmic Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zysset-Burri, D.C., Keller, I., Berger, L.E., Neyer, P.J., Steuer, C., Wolf, S., and Zinkernagel, M.S. (2019). Retinal artery occlusion is associated with compositional and functional shifts in the gut microbiome and altered trimethylamine-N-oxide levels. Sci. Rep., 9.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-51698-5"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2486","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.118.033714","article-title":"Bacteroides vulgatus and Bacteroides dorei Reduce Gut Microbial Lipopolysaccharide Production and Inhibit Atherosclerosis","volume":"138","author":"Yoshida","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1412","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2021-326264","article-title":"Cancer pharmacomicrobiomics: Targeting microbiota to optimise cancer therapy outcomes","volume":"71","author":"Ting","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_126","first-page":"8678967","article-title":"Prevalence of Microorganisms in Atherosclerotic Plaques of Coronary Arteries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"2022","author":"Elyaspour","year":"2022","journal-title":"Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alexandrescu, L., Suceveanu, A.P., Stanigut, A.M., Tofolean, D.E., Axelerad, A.D., Iordache, I.E., Herlo, A., Nelson, T.W.A., Nicoara, A.D., and Tocia, C. (2024). Intestinal Insights: The Gut Microbiome\u2019s Role in Atherosclerotic Disease: A Narrative Review. Microorganisms, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12112341"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108867","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2021.108867","article-title":"The gut microbiota in retinal diseases","volume":"214","author":"Bringer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_129","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2025, March 27). Probiotics in Food: Health and Nutritional Properties and Guidelines for Evaluation. Available online: https:\/\/openknowledge.fao.org\/server\/api\/core\/bitstreams\/382476b3-4d54-4175-803f-2f26f3526256\/content."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.4103\/japtr.japtr_116_21","article-title":"Fermented Foods as Probiotics: A Review","volume":"12","author":"Soemarie","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Adv. Pharm. Technol. Res."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Markowiak, P., and \u015ali\u017cewska, K. (2017). Effects of Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Synbiotics on Human Health. Nutrients, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu9091021"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salvador, R., Zhang, A., Horai, R., and Caspi, R.R. (2021). Microbiota as Drivers and as Therapeutic Targets in Ocular and Tissue Specific Autoimmunity. Front. Cell Dev. Biol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2020.606751"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-019-0439-x","article-title":"The pros, cons, and many unknowns of probiotics","volume":"25","author":"Suez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maftei, N.M., Raileanu, C.R., Balta, A.A., Ambrose, L., Boev, M., Marin, D.B., and Lisa, E.L. (2024). The Potential Impact of Probiotics on Human Health: An Update on Their Health-Promoting Properties. Microorganisms, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12020234"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cai, Y., and Kang, Y. (2023). Gut Microbiota and Metabolites in Diabetic Retinopathy: Insights into Pathogenesis for Novel Therapeutic Strategies. Biomed. Pharmacother., 164.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2023.114994"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omtm.2019.06.007","article-title":"Expression of Human ACE2 in Lactobacillus and Beneficial Effects in Diabetic Retinopathy in Mice","volume":"14","author":"Verma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Ther. Methods Clin. Dev."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morita, Y., Jounai, K., Miyake, M., Inaba, M., and Kanauchi, O. (2018). Effect of Heat-Killed Lactobacillus paracasei KW3110 Ingestion on Ocular Disorders Caused by Visual Display Terminal (VDT) Loads: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Parallel-Group Study. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10081058"},{"key":"ref_138","first-page":"4961","article-title":"Effects of Probiotic on the Development of Diabetic Retinopathy","volume":"61","author":"George","year":"2020","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2019","DOI":"10.1007\/s10482-020-01474-7","article-title":"Human gut microbiota\/microbiome in health and diseases: A review","volume":"113","author":"Gomaa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2017.75","article-title":"Expert Consensus Document: The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) Consensus Statement on the Definition and Scope of Prebiotics","volume":"14","author":"Gibson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campagnoli, L.I.M., Varesi, A., Barbieri, A., Marchesi, N., and Pascale, A. (2023). Targeting the Gut-Eye Axis: An Emerging Strategy to Face Ocular Diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241713338"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fang, I.M., Yang, C.H., Yang, C.M., and Chen, M.S. (2013). Chitosan Oligosaccharides Attenuates Oxidative-Stress Related Retinal Degeneration in Rats. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0077323"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hsu, S.M., Yang, C.H., Tsai, H.Y., Lin, C.J., Fang, Y.H., Shieh, C.C., and Chen, S.H. (2020). Chitosan Oligosaccharides Suppress Nuclear Factor-Kappa B Activation and Ameliorate Experimental Autoimmune Uveoretinitis in Mice. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21218326"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2018.08.007","article-title":"Protective Effect of Chitosan Oligosaccharides on Blue Light Light-Emitting Diode Induced Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cell Damage","volume":"49","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abu-Amero, K.K., Kondkar, A.A., and Chalam, K.V. (2016). Resveratrol and Ophthalmic Diseases. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8040200"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, Y., Liu, Y., and Meng, Z. (2024). Role of Traditional Chinese Medicine in Age-Related Macular Degeneration: Exploring the Gut Microbiota\u2019s Influence. Front. Pharmacol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2024.1356324"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.110.000075","article-title":"Prebiotic evaluation of cocoa-derived flavanols in healthy humans by using a randomized, controlled, double-blind, crossover intervention study","volume":"93","author":"Tzounis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-021-00440-6","article-title":"The International Scientific Association of Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on the definition and scope of postbiotics","volume":"18","author":"Salminen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u017b\u00f3\u0142kiewicz, J., Marzec, A., Ruszczy\u0144ski, M., and Feleszko, W. (2020). Postbiotics-A Step Beyond Pre- and Probiotics. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12082189"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Q., Li, X.J., Xie, W., Su, Z.A., Qin, G.M., and Yu, C.H. (2024). Postbiotics: Emerging Therapeutic Approach in Diabetic Retinopathy. Front. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1359949"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2018.09.027","article-title":"Ursodeoxycholic acid ameliorates diabetic retinopathy via reducing retinal inflammation and reversing the breakdown of blood-retinal barrier","volume":"840","author":"Ouyang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1763292","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/1763292","article-title":"Ursodeoxycholic Acid Attenuates Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress-Related Retinal Pericyte Loss in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Mice","volume":"2017","author":"Chung","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Res."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fiedorowicz, M., Choragiewicz, T., Thaler, S., Schuettauf, F., Nowakowska, D., Wojtunik, K., Reibaldi, M., Avitabile, T., Kocki, T., and Turski, W.A. (2019). Tryptophan and Kynurenine Pathway Metabolites in Animal Models of Retinal and Optic Nerve Damage: Different Dynamics of Changes. Front. Physiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2019.01254"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2117508","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2022.2117508","article-title":"The Clinical Evidence for Postbiotics as Microbial Therapeutics","volume":"14","author":"Mosca","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_155","first-page":"e66808","article-title":"The Relationship Between Gut Microbiome and Ophthalmologic Diseases: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"16","author":"Diarte","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_156","first-page":"E189","article-title":"Dietary Supplements in Retinal Diseases, Glaucoma, and Other Ocular Conditions","volume":"63","author":"Medori","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Prev. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1809","DOI":"10.21873\/invivo.13271","article-title":"Effect of the Mediterranean Diet on Progression of Dry Form of Age-Related Macular Degeneration","volume":"37","author":"Gourgouli","year":"2023","journal-title":"In Vivo"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1515","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2020.04.030","article-title":"Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet and Progression to Late Age-Related Macular Degeneration in the Age-Related Eye Disease Studies 1 and 2","volume":"127","author":"Keenan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2018.08.006","article-title":"Mediterranean Diet and Incidence of Advanced Age-Related Macular Degeneration: The EYE-RISK Consortium","volume":"126","author":"Merle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1604","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2013.01.021","article-title":"Long-Term Effects of Vitamins C and E, \u03b2-Carotene, and Zinc on Age-Related Macular Degeneration: AREDS Report No. 35","volume":"120","author":"Chew","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000326","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjophth-2019-000326","article-title":"Omega-3 Fatty Acids Supplementation Protects the Retina from Age-Associated Degeneration in Aged C57BL\/6J Mice","volume":"4","author":"Prokopiou","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMJ Open Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeppieri, M., Gagliano, C., D\u2019Esposito, F., Musa, M., Gattazzo, I., Zanella, M.S., Rossi, F.B., Galan, A., and Babighian, S. (2024). Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) and Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA): A Targeted Antioxidant Strategy to Counter Oxidative Stress in Retinopathy. Antioxidants, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox14010006"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2134","DOI":"10.2337\/dc15-1117","article-title":"Mediterranean Diet, Retinopathy, Nephropathy, and Microvascular Diabetes Complications: A Post Hoc Analysis of a Randomized Trial","volume":"38","author":"Babio","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1867","DOI":"10.2337\/db18-0158","article-title":"Restructuring of the Gut Microbiome by Intermittent Fasting Prevents Retinopathy and Prolongs Survival in db\/db Mice","volume":"67","author":"Beli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2022.06.017","article-title":"Intermittent Fasting Is Associated with a Decreased Risk of Age-Related Macular Degeneration","volume":"243","author":"Choi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, X., Kimura, A., Azuchi, Y., Akiyama, G., Noro, T., Harada, C., Namekata, K., and Harada, T. (2016). Caloric Restriction Promotes Cell Survival in a Mouse Model of Normal Tension Glaucoma. Sci. Rep., 6.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep33950"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, J., Zhang, S., Li, W., Bai, T., Liu, Y., and Chang, X. (2022). Intermittent Fasting to the Eye: A New Dimension Involved in Physiological and Pathological Changes. Front. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2022.867624"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2741","DOI":"10.4103\/NRR.NRR-D-24-00531","article-title":"The Gut-Eye Axis: From Brain Neurodegenerative Diseases to Age-Related Macular Degeneration","volume":"20","author":"Jin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neural Regen. Res."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2022.109216","article-title":"Inside Out: Relations between the Microbiome, Nutrition, and Eye Health","volume":"224","author":"Grant","year":"2022","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2100823","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.202100823","article-title":"A High Fat \u201cWestern-style\u201d Diet Induces AMD-Like Features in Wildtype Mice","volume":"66","author":"Keeling","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2023.03.020","article-title":"Key Determinants of Success in Fecal Microbiota Transplantation: From Microbiome to Clinic","volume":"31","author":"Porcari","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100069","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infpip.2020.100069","article-title":"Regulation, Risk, and Safety of Faecal Microbiota Transplant","volume":"2","author":"Merrick","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect. Prev. Pract."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfma.2018.08.011","article-title":"Fecal Microbiota Transplantation: Review and Update","volume":"118","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Formos. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parker, A., Romano, S., Ansorge, R., Aboelnour, A., Le Gall, G., Savva, G.M., Pontifex, M.G., Telatin, A., Baker, D., and Jones, E. (2022). Fecal Microbiota Transfer Between Young and Aged Mice Reverses Hallmarks of the Aging Gut, Eye, and Brain. Microbiome, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-022-01243-w"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6715","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v27.i39.6715","article-title":"Microbiota Shaping\u2014The Effects of Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Fecal Microbiota Transplant on Cognitive Functions: A Systematic Review","volume":"27","author":"Baldi","year":"2021","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/13\/5\/1101\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:30:27Z","timestamp":1760031027000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/13\/5\/1101"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,10]]},"references-count":175,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms13051101"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms13051101","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,10]]}}}