{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T07:43:38Z","timestamp":1790063018307,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":150,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,27]],"date-time":"2025-06-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1750982400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Human metapneumovirus (hMPV), a member of the Pneumoviridae subfamily, has emerged as a significant etiological agent of acute respiratory tract infections across diverse age groups, particularly affecting infants, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals. Since its initial identification in 2001, hMPV has been recognized globally for its seasonal circulation pattern, predominantly in late winter and spring. hMPV is a leading etiological agent, accounting for approximately 5% to 10% of hospitalizations among pediatric patients with acute respiratory tract infections. hMPV infection can result in severe bronchiolitis and pneumonia, particularly in young children, with clinical manifestations often indistinguishable from those caused by human RSV. Primary hMPV infection typically occurs during early childhood; however, re-infections are frequent and may occur throughout an individual\u2019s lifetime. hMPV is an enveloped, negative-sense RNA virus transmitted through respiratory droplets and aerosols, with a 3\u20135-day incubation period. The host immune response is marked by elevated pro-inflammatory cytokines, which contribute to disease severity. Advances in molecular diagnostics, particularly reverse transcription\u2013quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS), have improved detection accuracy and efficiency. Despite these advancements, treatment remains largely supportive, as no specific antiviral therapy has yet been approved. Promising developments in vaccine research, including mRNA-based candidates, are currently undergoing clinical evaluation. This review synthesizes current knowledge on hMPV, highlighting its virological, epidemiological, and clinical characteristics, along with diagnostic advancements and emerging therapeutic strategies, while underscoring the critical role of continued research and sustained preventive measures\u2014including vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, and non-pharmaceutical interventions\u2014in mitigating the global burden of hMPV-related disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13071508","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,30]],"date-time":"2025-06-30T03:54:28Z","timestamp":1751255668000},"page":"1508","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["hMPV Outbreaks: Worldwide Implications of a Re-Emerging Respiratory Pathogen"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8588-8672","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexandra","family":"Lianou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, \u201cAgios Panteleimon\u201d General Hospital of Nikea, 18454 Piraeus, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3695-0759","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andreas G.","family":"Tsantes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microbiology Department, \u201cSaint Savvas\u201d Oncology Hospital, 11522 Athens, Greece"},{"name":"Laboratory of Haematology and Blood Bank Unit, \u201cAttiko\u201d Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1082-5674","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Petros","family":"Ioannou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6129-7616","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Efstathia-Danai","family":"Bikouli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, General and Maternity Hospital \u201cHelena Venizelou\u201d, 11521 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anastasia","family":"Batsiou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, \u201cAgios Panteleimon\u201d General Hospital of Nikea, 18454 Piraeus, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aggeliki","family":"Kokkinou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, \u201cAgios Panteleimon\u201d General Hospital of Nikea, 18454 Piraeus, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2970-535X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kostantina A.","family":"Tsante","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Haematology and Blood Bank Unit, \u201cAttiko\u201d Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dionysios","family":"Tsilidis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria","family":"Lampridou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, \u201cAgios Panteleimon\u201d General Hospital of Nikea, 18454 Piraeus, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8021-6191","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicoletta","family":"Iacovidou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neonatal Department, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Aretaieio Hospital, 11528 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9972-8901","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rozeta","family":"Sokou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neonatal Department, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Aretaieio Hospital, 11528 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1038\/89098","article-title":"A newly discovered human pneumovirus isolated from young children with respiratory tract disease","volume":"7","author":"Groen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.2001.1355","article-title":"Analysis of the Genomic Sequence of a Human Metapneumovirus","volume":"295","author":"Bestebroer","year":"2002","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2011.07.011","article-title":"Nucleoproteins and nucleocapsids of negative-strand RNA viruses","volume":"14","author":"Ruigrok","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Porwal, S., Malviya, R., Sridhar, S.B., Shareef, J., and Wadhwa, T. (2025). Global impact of hMPV virus: Transmission, pathogenesis, diagnostic and treatment. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 112.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2025.116809"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7411a1","article-title":"Human Metapneumovirus Seasonality and Co-Circulation with Respiratory Syncytial Virus\u2014United States, 2014-2024","volume":"74","author":"Jobe","year":"2025","journal-title":"MMWR. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7411a2","article-title":"Epidemiology of Symptomatic Human Metapneumovirus Infection in the CASCADIA Community-Based Cohort\u2014Oregon and Washington, 2022-2024","volume":"74","author":"Shakya","year":"2025","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100679","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanhl.2024.100679","article-title":"The global burden of human metapneumovirus-associated acute respiratory infections in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"6","author":"Kulkarni","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet Healthy Longev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Debnath, A., Halder, P., Achary, T., Bir, R., Mondal, A., and Ish, P. (2025). Prevalence of human metapneumovirus infection among children suffering from acute respiratory illness in India: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Monaldi Arch. Chest Dis. = Arch. Monaldi Per Le Mal. Del Torace.","DOI":"10.4081\/monaldi.2025.3383"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmni.2025.101563","article-title":"The surge of human metapneumovirus (hMPV) cases in China and global implications","volume":"63","author":"Memish","year":"2025","journal-title":"New Microbes New Infect."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1007\/s44197-025-00380-3","article-title":"Epidemiological and Clinical Characteristics of Human Metapneumovirus-Associated Acute Respiratory Tract Infection Cases in the Pudong New Area, Shanghai, from 2014 to 2023","volume":"15","author":"Ding","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sinnathamby, M.A., Savagar, B., Rawlinson, C., Rome, M., Allen, A., and Watson, C. (2025). Human metapneumovirus (hMPV) test-positivity sentinel laboratory trends in England, 2012 to 2025. medRxiv, 2025.2003.2004.25322918.","DOI":"10.1101\/2025.03.04.25322918"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"e78354","article-title":"A Re-emerging Respiratory Virus: Human Metapneumovirus (hMPV)","volume":"17","author":"Mishra","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0036-1584800","article-title":"Metapneumovirus Infections and Respiratory Complications","volume":"37","author":"Mastrolia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Semin. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Babawale, P.I., and Guerrero-Plata, A. (2024). Respiratory Viral Coinfections: Insights into Epidemiology, Immune Response, Pathology, and Clinical Outcomes. Pathogens, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens13040316"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.13844","article-title":"Advancement in the development of mRNA-based vaccines for respiratory viruses","volume":"173","author":"Loaiza","year":"2024","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Uddin, S., and Thomas, M. (2025). Human Metapneumovirus. StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drudis.2025.104364","article-title":"An overview of progress in human metapneumovirus (hMPV) research: Structure, function, and therapeutic opportunities","volume":"30","author":"Laufer","year":"2025","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12627","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.12627","article-title":"Nucleocapsid assembly in pneumoviruses is regulated by conformational switching of the N protein","volume":"5","author":"Renner","year":"2016","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Renner, M., Paesen, G.C., Grison, C.M., Granier, S., Grimes, J.M., and Leyrat, C. (2017). Structural dissection of human metapneumovirus phosphoprotein using small angle x-ray scattering. Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-14448-z"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2698","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.2008\/004051-0","article-title":"Human metapneumovirus nucleoprotein and phosphoprotein interact and provide the minimal requirements for inclusion body formation","volume":"89","author":"Derdowski","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leyrat, C., Renner, M., Harlos, K., and Grimes, J.M. (2013). Solution and crystallographic structures of the central region of the phosphoprotein from human metapneumovirus. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0080371"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"El Najjar, F., Cifuentes-Mu\u00f1oz, N., Chen, J., Zhu, H., Buchholz, U.J., Moncman, C.L., and Dutch, R.E. (2016). Human metapneumovirus Induces Reorganization of the Actin Cytoskeleton for Direct Cell-to-Cell Spread. PLoS Pathog., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005922"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.str.2013.10.013","article-title":"Structure and Self-Assembly of the Calcium Binding Matrix Protein of Human Metapneumovirus","volume":"22","author":"Leyrat","year":"2014","journal-title":"Structure"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10931","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01287-06","article-title":"Characterization of Human Metapneumovirus F Protein-Promoted Membrane Fusion: Critical Roles for Proteolytic Processing and Low pH","volume":"80","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02674","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.02674","article-title":"Drastic changes in conformational dynamics of the antiterminator M2-1 regulate transcription efficiency in Pneumovirinae","volume":"3","author":"Leyrat","year":"2014","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6423","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02848-13","article-title":"The Human Metapneumovirus Small Hydrophobic Protein Has Properties Consistent with Those of a Viroporin and Can Modulate Viral Fusogenic Activity","volume":"88","author":"Masante","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheemarla, N.R., and Guerrero-Plata, A. (2017). Human Metapneumovirus Attachment Protein Contributes to Neutrophil Recruitment into the Airways of Infected Mice. Viruses, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/v9100310"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"45","article-title":"Human metapneumovirus: Review of an important respiratory pathogen","volume":"25","author":"Panda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis. IJID Off. Publ. Int. Soc. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2019.01.004","article-title":"Virus recognition of glycan receptors","volume":"34","author":"Thompson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0164123","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.01641-23","article-title":"Novel insights into the host cell glycan binding profile of human metapneumovirus","volume":"98","author":"Bailly","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1186\/2110-5820-2-30","article-title":"Human metapneumovirus infections on the ICU: A report of three cases","volume":"2","author":"Haas","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. Intensive Care"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galvez, N., Andrade Parra, C., Pacheco, G., Soto, J., Stranger, V., Rivera, T., Vasquez, A., and Kalergis, A. (2021). Host Components That Modulate the Disease Caused by hMPV. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13030519"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens2020232","article-title":"Host-Viral Interactions: Role of Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRRs) in Human Pneumovirus Infections","volume":"2","author":"Kolli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pathogens"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uche, I.K., and Guerrero-Plata, A. (2018). Interferon-Mediated Response to Human Metapneumovirus Infection. Viruses, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/v10090505"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andrade, C.A., Pacheco, G.A., G\u00e1lvez, N.M., Soto, J.A., Bueno, S.M., and Kalergis, A.M.J.V. (2020). Innate immune components that regulate the pathogenesis and resolution of hRSV and hMPV infections. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12060637"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Babawale, P.I., and Guerrero-Plata, A.J.V. (2025). Differential Responses of Pediatric and Adult Primary Epithelial Cells to Human Metapneumovirus and Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection. Viruses, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/v17030380"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Velayutham, T.S., Ivanciuc, T., Garofalo, R.P., and Casola, A. (2022). Role of human metapneumovirus glycoprotein G in modulation of immune responses. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.962925"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"140","article-title":"Innate Immune Response-Mediated Inflammation in Viral Pneumonia","volume":"17","author":"Ni","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sep\u00falveda-Alfaro, J., Catal\u00e1n, E.A., Vallejos, O.P., Ramos-Tapia, I., Madrid-Mu\u00f1oz, C., Mendoza-Le\u00f3n, M.J., Suazo, I.D., Rivera-Asin, E., Silva, P.H., and Alvarez-Mardones, O. (2024). Human metapneumovirus respiratory infection affects both innate and adaptive intestinal immunity. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1330209"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murdaca, G., Paladin, F., Tonacci, A., Borro, M., Greco, M., Gerosa, A., Isola, S., Allegra, A., and Gangemi, S.J.B. (2022). Involvement of Il-33 in the pathogenesis and prognosis of major respiratory viral infections: Future perspectives for personalized therapy. Biomedicines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines10030715"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-022-01949-1","article-title":"Profiles and predictive value of cytokines in children with human metapneumovirus pneumonia","volume":"19","author":"Xiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saravia, J., You, D., Shrestha, B., Jaligama, S., Siefker, D., Lee, G.I., Harding, J.N., Jones, T.L., Rovnaghi, C., and Bagga, B. (2015). Respiratory Syncytial Virus Disease Is Mediated by Age-Variable IL-33. PLoS Pathog., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005217"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1038\/s41385-019-0234-5","article-title":"Type I IFN ineffectively activates neonatal dendritic cells limiting respiratory antiviral T-cell responses","volume":"13","author":"Turfkruyer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mucimm.2023.12.004","article-title":"PD-1 signaling in neonates restrains CD8(+) T cell function and protects against respiratory viral immunopathology","volume":"17","author":"Eddens","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eddens, T., Parks, O.B., and Williams, J.V. (2022). Neonatal Immune Responses to Respiratory Viruses. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.863149"},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"1308","article-title":"The Innate Cytokines IL-25, IL-33, and TSLP Cooperate in the Induction of Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cell Expansion and Mucous Metaplasia in Rhinovirus-Infected Immature Mice","volume":"199","author":"Han","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Baltim. Md. 1950"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e410","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2006-3283","article-title":"Cytokine profiles in the respiratory tract during primary infection with human metapneumovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, or influenza virus in infants","volume":"120","author":"Melendi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1038\/pr.2015.113","article-title":"Premature infants have impaired airway antiviral IFN\u03b3 responses to human metapneumovirus compared to respiratory syncytial virus","volume":"78","author":"Pancham","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2024.10.023","article-title":"Epidemiology of human metapneumovirus among children with severe or very severe pneumonia in high pneumonia burden settings: The Pneumonia Etiology Research for Child Health (PERCH) study experience","volume":"31","author":"Miyakawa","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"(2025, April 16). The National Respiratory and Enteric Virus Surveillance System (NREVSS), Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nrevss\/php\/dashboard\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, J., Wu, S., Chen, Y., and Zheng, L. (2025). Prevalence and distribution of respiratory pathogens in pediatric acute respiratory infections in Putian, China. BMC Infect. Dis., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-025-10670-7"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa046","article-title":"Respiratory Failure and Death in Vulnerable Premature Children With Lower Respiratory Tract Illness","volume":"222","author":"Ofman","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leija-Mart\u00ednez, J.J., Cadena-Mota, S., Gonz\u00e1lez-Ortiz, A.M., Mu\u00f1oz-Escalante, J.C., Mata-Moreno, G., Hern\u00e1ndez-S\u00e1nchez, P.G., Vega-Mor\u00faa, M., and Noyola, D.E. (2024). Respiratory Syncytial Virus and Other Respiratory Viruses in Hospitalized Infants During the 2023-2024 Winter Season in Mexico. Viruses, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/v16121917"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deval, H., Kumar, N., Srivastava, M., Potdar, V., Mehta, A., Verma, A., Singh, R., Kavathekar, A., Kant, R., and Murhekar, M. (2024). Human metapneumovirus (hMPV): An associated etiology of severe acute respiratory infection in children of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India. Access Microbiol., 6.","DOI":"10.1099\/acmi.0.000829.v4"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.26188","article-title":"Retrospective comparison of respiratory syncytial virus and metapneumovirus clinical presentation in hospitalized children","volume":"58","author":"Berger","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2072","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa019","article-title":"Role for Maternal Asthma in Severe Human Metapneumovirus Lung Disease Susceptibility in Children","volume":"223","author":"Libster","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Lund, C., Nervik, I., Loevenich, S., D\u00f8llner, H., Anthonsen, M.W., and Johnsen, I.B. (2018). Characterization of signaling pathways regulating the expression of pro-inflammatory long form thymic stromal lymphopoietin upon human metapneumovirus infection. Sci. Rep., 8.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-19225-0"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ballegeer, M., and Saelens, X. (2020). Cell-Mediated Responses to Human Metapneumovirus Infection. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12050542"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellimm.2018.06.007","article-title":"Skewed balance of regulatory T cell and inflammatory T cell in IL-17 defect with human metapneumovirus infection","volume":"331","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"e73292","article-title":"Demographics, Clinical Presentation and Outcome of Metapneumovirus Infection in Adults: A Case Series Analysis at Scarborough General Hospital, United Kingdom","volume":"16","author":"Khan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2725","DOI":"10.1007\/s10238-022-00973-3","article-title":"Multicenter epidemiological investigation and genetic characterization of respiratory syncytial virus and metapneumovirus infections in the pre-pandemic 2018-2019 season in northern and central Italy","volume":"23","author":"Pierangeli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-024-02327-9","article-title":"Epidemiology and diagnosis technologies of human metapneumovirus in China: A mini review","volume":"21","author":"Feng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.46234\/ccdcw2024.087","article-title":"Seasonal and Genetic Characteristics of Human Metapneumovirus Circulating\u2014Henan Province, China, 2017\u20132023","volume":"6","author":"Zhibo","year":"2024","journal-title":"China CDC Wkly."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/s13052-025-01848-5","article-title":"Changes in infant respiratory pathogens pre-, during, and post-COVID-19 non-pharmacological interventions in Beijing","volume":"51","author":"Han","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ital. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, X., Zhang, Y., Xu, L., Jiang, W., and Hao, C. (2024). Analysis of respiratory pathogen detection in hospitalized children with acute respiratory tract infections after ending the zero COVID policy. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-82660-9"},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"40","article-title":"Epidemiology, genetic characteristics, and association with meteorological factors of human metapneumovirus infection in children in southern China: A 10-year retrospective study","volume":"137","author":"Ye","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis. IJID Off. Publ. Int. Soc. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-024-02579-5","article-title":"Epidemiological characteristics of respiratory pathogens infections among children after the removal of non-pharmaceutical interventions in central China","volume":"21","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e171","DOI":"10.3346\/jkms.2024.39.e171","article-title":"Epidemiology of Respiratory Viruses in Korean Children Before and After the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Prospective Study From National Surveillance System","volume":"39","author":"Cho","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Korean Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-024-06147-8","article-title":"Epidemiology of human metapneumovirus in Taiwan from 2013 to 2023","volume":"169","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.35772\/ghmo.2024.01001","article-title":"COVID-19 pandemic-altered epidemiology of respiratory syncytial virus and human metapneumovirus infections in young children","volume":"4","author":"Nagasawa","year":"2024","journal-title":"GHM Open"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nagasawa, M., Udagawa, T., Kato, T., Tanaka, I., Yamamoto, R., Sakaguchi, H., and Sekikawa, Y. (2024). Observational Study on the Clinical Reality of Community-Acquired Respiratory Virus Infections in Adults and Older Individuals. Pathogens, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens13110983"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70062","DOI":"10.1111\/irv.70062","article-title":"Viral Acute Lower Respiratory Tract Infections (ALRI) in Rural Bangladeshi Children Prior to the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"18","author":"Reller","year":"2024","journal-title":"Influenza Other Respir. Viruses"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chowdhury, F., Bin Shahid, A.S.M.S., Ghosh, P.K., Rahman, M., Hassan, M.Z., Akhtar, Z., Muneer, S.M.-E., Shahrin, L., Ahmed, T., and Chisti, M.J. (2020). Viral etiology of pneumonia among severely malnourished under-five children in an urban hospital, Bangladesh. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0228329"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpedsurg.2024.03.034","article-title":"Does Delayed Diagnosis of Hirschsprung Disease Impact Post-operative and Functional Outcomes? A Multi-Center Review From the Pediatric Colorectal and Pelvic Learning Consortium","volume":"59","author":"Ullrich","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Surg."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13285","DOI":"10.1111\/irv.13285","article-title":"Predictors of Respiratory Syncytial Virus, Influenza Virus, and Human Metapneumovirus Carriage in Children Under 5\u2009Years With WHO-Defined Fast-Breathing Pneumonia in Pakistan","volume":"18","author":"Nisar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Influenza Other Respir. Viruses"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70005","DOI":"10.1111\/irv.70005","article-title":"Respiratory Viral Testing Rate Patterns in Young Children Attending Tertiary Care Across Western Australia: A Population-Based Birth Cohort Study","volume":"18","author":"Taye","year":"2024","journal-title":"Influenza Other Respir. Viruses"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"abd9149","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abd9149","article-title":"Airborne transmission of respiratory viruses","volume":"373","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijporl.2005.12.007","article-title":"Association of human metapneumovirus with acute otitis media","volume":"70","author":"Williams","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa025472","article-title":"Human metapneumovirus and lower respiratory tract disease in otherwise healthy infants and children","volume":"350","author":"Williams","year":"2004","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1713","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20160011","article-title":"Role of human metapneumovirus and respiratory syncytial virus in asthma exacerbations: Where are we now?","volume":"131","author":"Rudd","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1107","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0000000000002038","article-title":"Burden of Human Metapneumovirus and Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections in Asthmatic Children","volume":"37","author":"Furuta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.5578\/mb.6041","article-title":"Investigation of the presence of human metapneumovirus in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma and its relationship with the attacks","volume":"47","author":"Ilvan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mikrobiyol Bul."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Costa-Filho, R.C., Saddy, F., Costa, J.L.F., Tavares, L.R., and Castro Faria Neto, H.C. (2025). The Silent Threat of Human Metapneumovirus: Clinical Challenges and Diagnostic Insights from a Severe Pneumonia Case. Microorganisms, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13010073"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1177\/10892532241301195","article-title":"Severe Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in an Adult Patient with Human Metapneumovirus Infection Successfully Managed With Veno-Venous Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation","volume":"29","author":"Basta","year":"2024","journal-title":"Semin. Cardiothorac. Vasc. Anesthesia"},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"606","article-title":"A case of bronchiolitis obliterans secondary to human metapneumovirus bronchiolitis","volume":"50","author":"Bato","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mikrobiyol. Bul."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2213","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268812002920","article-title":"Human metapneumovirus infections are associated with severe morbidity in hospitalized children of all ages","volume":"141","author":"Hahn","year":"2013","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.26401","article-title":"Report of death in children with SARS-CoV-2 and human metapneumovirus (hMPV) coinfection: Is hMPV the trigger?","volume":"93","author":"Hashemi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"e202452","article-title":"Acute myocarditis secondary to human metapneumovirus: A case series and mini-review","volume":"2024","author":"Hennawi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Glob. Cardiol. Sci. Pract."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.braindev.2023.01.001","article-title":"A nationwide survey of human metapneumovirus-associated encephalitis\/encephalopathy in Japan","volume":"45","author":"Mori","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Dev."},{"key":"ref_90","first-page":"131780","article-title":"Clinical Significance of Human Metapneumovirus in Refractory Status Epilepticus and Encephalitis: Case Report and Review of the Literature","volume":"2015","author":"Vehapoglu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Case Rep. Neurol. Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1620\/tjem.2022.J056","article-title":"Multiple cerebral hemorrhages and white matter lesions developing after severe hMPV pneumonia in a patient with trisomy 13: A case report and review of the literature","volume":"258","author":"Shibuya","year":"2022","journal-title":"Tohoku J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"e73296","article-title":"Human Metapneumovirus Associated With Acute Hemorrhagic Oedema of Infancy: A Case Report","volume":"16","author":"Dhariwal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1080\/20469047.2020.1814567","article-title":"A rare case of metapneumovirus-induced rhabdomyolysis and multi-organ dysfunction in a 4-year-old child","volume":"41","author":"Chidambaram","year":"2021","journal-title":"Paediatr. Int. Child Health"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, J., Mao, N.-Y., Zhang, C., Yang, M.-J., Wang, M., Xu, W.-B., and Ma, X.-J. (2012). The development of a GeXP-based multiplex reverse transcription-PCR assay for simultaneous detection of sixteen human respiratory virus types\/subtypes. BMC Infect. Dis., 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-12-189"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Popowitch, E.B., Kaplan, S., Wu, Z., Tang, Y.W., and Miller, M.B. (2022). Comparative Performance of the Luminex NxTAG Respiratory Pathogen Panel, GenMark eSensor Respiratory Viral Panel, and BioFire FilmArray Respiratory Panel. Microbiol. Spectr., 10.","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.01248-22"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114812","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2023.114812","article-title":"Development of a duplex real-time RT-PCR assay for the detection and identification of two subgroups of human metapneumovirus in a single tube","volume":"322","author":"Sugimoto","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2013.10.037","article-title":"Identification of human metapneumovirus genotypes A and B from clinical specimens by reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification","volume":"196","author":"Song","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Jiao, S.-L., Xie, L., Mao, Y., Ni, H.-X., and Li, Y.-D. (2025, April 30). Establishment of a Reverse Transcriptase-Mediated Isothermal Amplification Fluorescence Assay for Detection of Human Metapneumovirus. Available online: https:\/\/www.cabidigitallibrary.org\/doi\/full\/10.5555\/20231623480."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"(2025, April 30). Available online: https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar_lookup?journal=Chin%20J%20Zoonos&title=Establishment%20of%20a%20reverse%20transcriptase-mediated%20isothermal%20amplication%20fluorescence%20assay%20for%20detection%20of%20Human%20metapneumovirus&author=SL%20Jiao&author=L%20Xie&author=Y%20Mao&author=%20NI%20HX,%20Li%20YD,&volume=39&publication_year=2023&pages=780-783&."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115001","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2024.115001","article-title":"Rapid and one-tube detection of human metapneumovirus using the RT-RPA and CRISPR\/Cas12a","volume":"329","author":"Du","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198568","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2021.198568","article-title":"Visual detection of human metapneumovirus using CRISPR-Cas12a diagnostics","volume":"305","author":"Qian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2020.02.003","article-title":"Nanopore metagenomic sequencing to investigate nosocomial transmission of human metapneumovirus from a unique genetic group among haematology patients in the United Kingdom","volume":"80","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100091","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crmeth.2021.100091","article-title":"Metatranscriptomics to characterize respiratory virome, microbiome, and host response directly from clinical samples","volume":"1","author":"Rajagopala","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Rep. Methods"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.21037\/atm.2019.12.42","article-title":"Advances in laboratory assays for detecting human metapneumovirus","volume":"8","author":"Jeong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"Mavi, A.K., Chowdhury, S., Kumar, N., Singh, P., Kumar, D., Preethi, L., and Kumar, U. (2023). Novel diagnostic methods for emerging respiratory viral infection. Emerging Human Viral Diseases, Volume I: Respiratory and Haemorrhagic Fever, Springer."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105854","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2019.105854","article-title":"Respiratory viral infections in Western Australians with cystic fibrosis","volume":"161","author":"Brestovac","year":"2020","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.20546","article-title":"Human metapneumovirus and respiratory syncytial virus infections in older children with cystic fibrosis","volume":"42","author":"Garcia","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinez-Rodriguez, C., and Banos-Lara, M.d.R. (2020). HMPV in Immunocompromised Patients: Frequency and Severity in Pediatric Oncology Patients. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9010051"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01959-08","article-title":"Molecular epidemiological investigation of a nosocomial outbreak of human metapneumovirus infection in a pediatric hemato-oncology patient population","volume":"47","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1097\/MPH.0b013e31828ac89c","article-title":"Human metapneumovirus (hMPV) infection in children with cancer","volume":"35","author":"Ali","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hijano, D.R., Maron, G., and Hayden, R.T. (2018). Respiratory Viral Infections in Patients with Cancer or Undergoing Hematopoietic Cell Transplant. Front. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.03097"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E97","DOI":"10.1111\/tid.12074","article-title":"Fatal human metapneumovirus infection following allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation","volume":"15","author":"Dokos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Transpl. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cohen, C., Moyes, J., Tempia, S., Groome, M., Walaza, S., Pretorius, M., Naby, F., Mekgoe, O., Kahn, K., and von Gottberg, A. (2016). Epidemiology of Acute Lower Respiratory Tract Infection in HIV-Exposed Uninfected Infants. Pediatrics, 137.","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2015-3272"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2308.161358","article-title":"Human Metapneumovirus and Other Respiratory Viral Infections during Pregnancy and Birth, Nepal","volume":"23","author":"Lenahan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0000000000002165","article-title":"Human Metapneumovirus Infection and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome During Pregnancy","volume":"130","author":"Fuchs","year":"2017","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiy167","article-title":"A Cross-sectional Surveillance Study of the Frequency and Etiology of Acute Respiratory Illness Among Pregnant Women","volume":"218","author":"Hause","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.12-1956","article-title":"A prospective study of respiratory viral infection in pregnant women with and without asthma","volume":"144","author":"Murphy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.14740\/jcgo573","article-title":"A Report of Two Cases of Human Metapneumovirus Infection in Pregnancy Involving Superimposed Bacterial Pneumonia and Severe Respiratory Illness","volume":"8","author":"Emont","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_119","first-page":"135","article-title":"A Case of Human Meta-pneumovirus Infection in Pregnancy Involving Superimposed Bacterial Pneumonia and Respiratory Distress","volume":"7","author":"Abdalla","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dauby, N., and Flamand, V. (2022). From maternal breath to infant\u2019s cells: Impact of maternal respiratory infections on infants \u2018immune responses. Front. Pediatr., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2022.1046100"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"920","DOI":"10.5858\/arpa.2020-0211-SA","article-title":"Infections in Pregnancy With COVID-19 and Other Respiratory RNA Virus Diseases Are Rarely, If Ever, Transmitted to the Fetus: Experiences With Coronaviruses, Parainfluenza, Metapneumovirus Respiratory Syncytial Virus, and Influenza","volume":"144","author":"Schwartz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1093\/jpids\/piac018","article-title":"Fetal Transfer of Human Metapneumovirus-Neutralizing Antibodies Is Reduced From Mothers Living With HIV-1","volume":"11","author":"Ramocha","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. Soc."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Funes, S.C., R\u00edos, M., Fern\u00e1ndez-Fierro, A., Rivera-P\u00e9rez, D., Soto, J.A., Valbuena, J.R., Altamirano-Lagos, M.J., G\u00f3mez-Santander, F., Jara, E.L., and Zoroquiain, P. (2022). Female offspring gestated in hypothyroxinemia and infected with human Metapneumovirus (hMPV) suffer a more severe infection and have a higher number of activated CD8(+) T lymphocytes. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.966917"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verma, M., Panchal, N.S., and Yadav, P.K. (2025). Exploring Chemical Space to Identify Partial Binders Against hMPV Nucleocapsid Protein. J. Cell. Biochem., 126.","DOI":"10.1002\/jcb.30618"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez-Espinoza, I., Babawale, P.I., Miletello, H., Cheemarla, N.R., and Guerrero-Plata, A. (2024). Interferon Epsilon-Mediated Antiviral Activity Against Human Metapneumovirus and Respiratory Syncytial Virus. Vaccines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines12101198"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sojati, J., Parks, O.B., Zhang, Y., Walters, S., Lan, J., Eddens, T., Lou, D., Fan, L., Chen, K., and Oury, T.D. (2024). IFN-\u03bb drives distinct lung immune landscape changes and antiviral responses in human metapneumovirus infection. mBio, 15.","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.00550-24"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bergeron, H.C., Crabtree, J., Nagy, T., Martin, D.E., and Tripp, R.A. (2024). Probenecid Inhibits Human Metapneumovirus (HMPV) Replication In Vitro and in BALB\/c Mice. Viruses, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/v16071087"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, X., Abeywickrema, P., Bonneux, B., Behera, I., Anson, B., Jacoby, E., Fung, A., Adhikary, S., Bhaumik, A., and Carbajo, R.J. (2023). Structural and mechanistic insights into the inhibition of respiratory syncytial virus polymerase by a non-nucleoside inhibitor. Commun. Biol., 6.","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-023-05451-4"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luck, M.I., Subillaga, E.J., Borenstein, R., and Sabo, Y. (2024). Ginkgolic acid inhibits orthopneumo- and metapneumo- virus infectivity. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-58032-8"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, C., Huang, Y.M., Zhao, J., Bai, Y.M., Yan, C.Q., Du, G.H., Zheng, L.S., and Liu, A.L. (2024). Fumarprotocetraric acid and geraniin were identified as novel inhibitors of human respiratory syncytial virus infection in vitro. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1484245"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2025.114510","article-title":"Exploring quercetin based nano formulation in combating human Metapneumovirus infections","volume":"153","author":"Bhuvaneshwari","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1177\/135965350801300104","article-title":"The prophylactic administration of a monoclonal antibody against human metapneumovirus attenuates viral disease and airways hyperresponsiveness in mice","volume":"13","author":"Hamelin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antivir. Ther."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abu-Shmais, A.A., Guo, L., Khalil, A.M., Miller, R.J., Janke, A.K., Vukovich, M.J., Bass, L.E., Suresh, Y.P., Rush, S.A., and Wolters, R.M. (2024). A potently neutralizing and protective human antibody targeting antigenic site V on RSV and hMPV fusion glycoprotein. Biorxiv Prepr. Serv. Biol., Available online: https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC11565947\/.","DOI":"10.1101\/2024.10.31.621295"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e732","DOI":"10.1016\/S2666-5247(23)00134-9","article-title":"Neutralising antibodies against human metapneumovirus","volume":"4","author":"Guo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet. Microbe"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1093\/jpids\/pix006","article-title":"Evaluation of a Live Attenuated Human Metapneumovirus Vaccine in Adults and Children","volume":"7","author":"Karron","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. Soc."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofaf160","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofaf160","article-title":"A Randomized Phase 1 Clinical Trial of a Respiratory Syncytial Virus and Human Metapneumovirus Combination Protein-Based Virus-like Particle Vaccine in Adults 60\u201375 Years of Age","volume":"12","author":"Shapiro","year":"2025","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-024-00899-9","article-title":"Mucosal bivalent live attenuated vaccine protects against human metapneumovirus and respiratory syncytial virus in mice","volume":"9","author":"Brun","year":"2024","journal-title":"NPJ Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3474","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2024.04.048","article-title":"VLPs generated by the fusion of RSV-F or hMPV-F glycoprotein to HIV-Gag show improved immunogenicity and neutralizing response in mice","volume":"42","author":"Durr","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Swart, M., Allen, J., Reed, B., Izquierdo Gil, A., Verspuij, J., Schmit-Tillemans, S., Chakkumkal, A., Findeis, M., Hafner, A.V., and Harjivan, C. (2024). Plant Cell Culture-Derived Saponin Adjuvant Enhances Immune Response Against a Stabilized Human Metapneumovirus Pre-Fusion Vaccine Candidate. Vaccines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines12121435"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofac206","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofac206","article-title":"Safety and Immunogenicity of an mRNA-Based Human Metapneumovirus and Parainfluenza Virus Type 3 Combined Vaccine in Healthy Adults","volume":"9","author":"August","year":"2022","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1038\/s41573-022-00495-3","article-title":"Antibodies to combat viral infections: Development strategies and progress","volume":"21","author":"Pantaleo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. reviews. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(22)00291-2","article-title":"Respiratory syncytial virus prevention within reach: The vaccine and monoclonal antibody landscape","volume":"23","author":"Mazur","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stepanova, E., Matyushenko, V., Rudenko, L., and Isakova-Sivak, I. (2020). Prospects of and Barriers to the Development of Epitope-Based Vaccines against Human Metapneumovirus. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9060481"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1017\/ice.2016.316","article-title":"Paramyxovirus Outbreak in a Long-Term Care Facility: The Challenges of Implementing Infection Control Practices in a Congregate Setting","volume":"38","author":"Spires","year":"2017","journal-title":"Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idc.2016.04.003","article-title":"Outbreaks in Health Care Settings","volume":"30","author":"Sood","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, M.H., Lee, G.A., Lee, S.H., and Park, Y.H. (2020). A systematic review on the causes of the transmission and control measures of outbreaks in long-term care facilities: Back to basics of infection control. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0229911"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1017\/ice.2016.73","article-title":"Impact of Infection Prevention and Control Initiatives on Acute Respiratory Infections in a Pediatric Long-Term Care Facility","volume":"37","author":"Murray","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infect. Control. Hosp. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Collins, J.P., and Shane, A.L. (2018). Infections Associated with Group Childcare. Princ. Pract. Pediatr. Infect. Dis., 25\u201332.e23.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-323-40181-4.00003-7"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e016870","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2024-016870","article-title":"Embedding risk monitoring in infectious disease surveillance for timely and effective outbreak prevention and control","volume":"10","author":"Brecht","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMJ Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_150","unstructured":"European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2025, June 22). ECDC Strategic Framework for the Integration of Molecular and Genomic Typing into European Surveillance and Multi-Country Outbreak Investigations\u20142021\u20132027. Available online: https:\/\/www.ecdc.europa.eu\/en\/publications-data\/ecdc-strategic-framework-integration-molecular-and-genomic-typing-european."}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/13\/7\/1508\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:00:39Z","timestamp":1760032839000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/13\/7\/1508"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,27]]},"references-count":150,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms13071508"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms13071508","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,27]]}}}