{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T17:25:39Z","timestamp":1790011539446,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,2]],"date-time":"2025-07-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1751414400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Red Sea is rich in symbiotic microorganisms that have been identified as sources of bioactive compounds with antimicrobial, antifungal, and antioxidant properties. In this study, we aimed to explore the potential of marine sponge-associated bacteria as sources of antibacterial compounds, emphasizing their significance in combating antibiotic resistance (AMR). The crude extracts of Micrococcus, Bacillus, and Staphylococcus saprophyticus exhibited significant antibacterial activity, with inhibition zones measuring 12 mm and 14 mm against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans, and other infectious strains. The DPPH assay showed that the bacterial isolates AN3 and AN6 exhibited notable antioxidant activity at a concentration of 100 mg\/mL. To characterize the chemical constituents responsible for the observed bioactivity, a GC\u2013MS analysis was performed on ethyl acetate extracts of the potent strains. The analysis identified a range of antimicrobial compounds, including straight-chain alkanes (e.g., Tetradecane), cyclic structures (e.g., Cyclopropane derivatives), and phenolic compounds, all of which are known to disrupt microbial membranes or interfere with metabolic pathways. The bioprospecting and large-scale production of these compounds are challenging. In conclusion, this study underscores the potential for marine bacteria associated with sponges from the Red Sea to be a source of bioactive compounds with therapeutic relevance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13071552","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,2]],"date-time":"2025-07-02T04:11:04Z","timestamp":1751429464000},"page":"1552","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Antimicrobial Metabolites Isolated from Some Marine Bacteria Associated with Callyspongia crassa Sponge of the Red Sea"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2965-1141","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amal N.","family":"Alahmari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3089-3682","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shahira A.","family":"Hassoubah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bothaina A.","family":"Alaidaroos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9391-5650","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed M.","family":"Al-Hejin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"King Fahad Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Noor M.","family":"Bataweel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"King Fahad Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7593-8018","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Reem M.","family":"Farsi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4658-7428","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khloud M.","family":"Algothmi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-9608-1687","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Naheda M.","family":"Alshammari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-7973-2601","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amal T. K.","family":"Ashour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-024-03033-w","article-title":"40 million deaths by 2050: Toll of drug-resistant infections to rise by 70%","volume":"633","author":"Naddaf","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)01867-1","article-title":"Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance 1990\u20132021: A systematic analysis with forecasts to 2050","volume":"404","author":"Naghavi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1080\/07388551.2019.1710457","article-title":"Marine bacteria as source of antimicrobial compounds","volume":"40","author":"Stincone","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1417","DOI":"10.3390\/md8041417","article-title":"Marine drugs from sponge-microbe association\u2014A review","volume":"8","author":"Thomas","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Indraningrat, A.A.G., Smidt, H., and Sipkema, D. (2016). Bioprospecting sponge-associated microbes for antimicrobial compounds. Mar. Drugs, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/md14050087"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Helber, S.B., Hoeijmakers, D.J., Muhando, C.A., Rohde, S., and Schupp, P.J. (2018). Sponge chemical defenses are a possible mechanism for increasing sponge abundance on reefs in Zanzibar. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0197617"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1139\/cjm-2022-0147","article-title":"Marine-derived antimicrobial molecules from the sponges and their associated bacteria","volume":"69","author":"Devkar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Can. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mehbub, M.F., Yang, Q., Cheng, Y., Franco, C.M.M., and Zhang, W. (2024). Marine sponge-derived natural products: Trends and opportunities for the decade of 2011\u20132020. Front. Mar. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2024.1462825"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karimi, E., Keller-Costa, T., Slaby, B.M., Cox, C.J., da Rocha, U.N., Hentschel, U., and Costa, R. (2019). Genomic blueprints of sponge-prokaryote symbiosis are shared by low abundant and cultivatable Alphaproteobacteria. Sci. Rep., 9.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-38737-x"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.2174\/1389200217666161013090610","article-title":"Bacteria from marine sponges: A source of new drugs","volume":"18","author":"Bibi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Metab."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, T., Wu, S., Zhang, R., Wang, D., Chen, J., and Zhao, J. (2019). Diversity and antimicrobial potential of Actinobacteria isolated from diverse marine sponges along the Beibu Gulf of the South China Sea. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol., 95.","DOI":"10.1093\/femsec\/fiz089"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gavriilidou, A., Mackenzie, T.A., S\u00e1nchez, P., Tormo, J.R., Ingham, C., Smidt, H., and Sipkema, D. (2021). Bioactivity screening and gene-trait matching across marine sponge-associated bacteria. Mar. Drugs, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/md19020075"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almeida, J.F., Marques, M., Oliveira, V., Egas, C., Mil-Homens, D., Viana, R., Cleary, D.F., Huang, Y.M., Fialho, A.M., and Teixeira, M.C. (2022). Marine sponge and octocoral-associated bacteria show versatile secondary metabolite biosynthesis potential and antimicrobial activities against human pathogens. Mar. Drugs, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/md21010034"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anteneh, Y.S., Yang, Q., Brown, M.H., and Franco, C.M. (2021). Antimicrobial activities of marine sponge-associated bacteria. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9010171"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J.A., Choi, S.S., Lim, J.K., and Kim, E.S. (2025). Unlocking marine treasures: Isolation and mining strategies of natural products from sponge-associated bacteria. Nat. Prod. Rep.","DOI":"10.1039\/D5NP00013K"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjbs.2020.02.002","article-title":"Antimicrobial activity of bacteria from marine sponge Suberea mollis and bioactive metabolites of Vibrio sp. EA348","volume":"27","author":"Bibi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Saudi J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"174","article-title":"Studies on the diuretic and antimicrobial activity of Cynodon dactylon essential oil","volume":"67","author":"Artizzu","year":"1996","journal-title":"Fitoterapia"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s43141-021-00203-5","article-title":"Isolation and characterization of marine sponge\u2013associated Streptomyces sp. NMF6 strain producing secondary metabolite (s) possessing antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, and antiviral activities","volume":"19","author":"Fahmy","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Genet. Eng. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78294","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/8178294","article-title":"Evaluation of the use of different solvents for phytochemical constituents, antioxidants, and in vitro anti-inflammatory activities of Severinia buxifolia","volume":"2019","author":"Truong","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Food Qual."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Azc\u00e1rate-Peril, M.A., and Raya, R.R. (2001). Methods for plasmid and genomic DNA isolation from lactobacilli. Food Microbiology Protocols, Humana Press."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"84","article-title":"A comparative GC-MS analysis of bacterial secondary metabolites of Pseudomonas species","volume":"5 Pt B","author":"Anantha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pharma Innov."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1007\/s12010-017-2453-0","article-title":"Sponge-associated bacteria produce non-cytotoxic melanin which protects animal cells from photo-toxicity","volume":"183","author":"Vijayan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dat, T.T., Cuc, N.T., Cuong, P.V., Smidt, H., and Sipkema, D. (2021). Diversity and Antimicrobial Activity of Vietnamese Sponge-Associated Bacteria. Mar. Drugs, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/md19070353"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micres.2005.09.002","article-title":"Antimicrobial activity of marine bacteria associated with sponges from the waters off the coast of South East India","volume":"161","author":"Anand","year":"2006","journal-title":"Microbiol. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.12401","article-title":"Diversity and antibacterial activity of bacteria cultured from Mediterranean Axinella spp. sponges","volume":"116","author":"Haber","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resmic.2010.05.013","article-title":"Isolation, characterization and phylogeny of sponge-associated bacteria with antimicrobial activities from Brazil","volume":"161","author":"Santos","year":"2010","journal-title":"Res. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/s12088-014-0490-8","article-title":"Antioxidant Activity of Bacteria Associated with the Marine Sponge Tedaniaanhelans","volume":"55","author":"Balakrishnan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Indian J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2786","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tetlet.2016.05.042","article-title":"Ageloline A, new antioxidant and antichlamydial quinolone from the marine sponge-derived bacterium Streptomyces sp. SBT345","volume":"57","author":"Cheng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Tetrahedron Lett."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hamed, A.A., Ghareeb, M.A., Kelany, A.K., Abdelraof, M., Kabary, H.A., Soliman, N.R., and Elawady, M.E. (2024). Induction of antimicrobial, antioxidant metabolites production by co-cultivation of two red-sea-sponge-associated Aspergillus sp. CO2 and Bacillus sp. COBZ21. BMC Biotechnol., 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12896-024-00830-z"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riyanti Balansa, W., Liu, Y., Sharma, A., Mihajlovic, S., Hartwig, C., Leis, B., Rieuwpassa, F.J., Ijong, F.G., W\u00e4gele, H., and K\u00f6nig, G.M. (2020). Selection of sponge-associated bacteria with high potential for the production of antibacterial compounds. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-76256-2"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6941.2001.tb00816.x","article-title":"Isolation and phylogenetic analysis of bacteria with antimicrobial activities from the Mediterranean sponges Aplysina aerophoba and Aplysina cavernicola","volume":"35","author":"Hentschel","year":"2001","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1007\/s12010-017-2562-9","article-title":"Previously undescribed antibacterial polyketides from heterotrophic Bacillus amyloliquefaciens associated with seaweed Padina gymnospora","volume":"184","author":"Chakraborty","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"233","article-title":"Metabolites from the sponge-associated bacterium Micrococcus luteus","volume":"6","author":"Debitus","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Mar. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4939","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmcl.2014.09.040","article-title":"New antibacterial xanthone from the marine sponge-derived Micrococcus sp. EG45","volume":"24","author":"Eltamany","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bioorganic Med. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2019.01.065","article-title":"Bioactivity assessment of the Saudi Arabian Marine Streptomyces sp. Al-Dhabi-90, metabolic profiling and its in vitro inhibitory property against multidrug resistant and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase clinical bacterial pathogens","volume":"12","author":"Ghilan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"53","article-title":"Antimicrobial potential of Streptomyces cheonanensis VUK-a from mangrove origin","volume":"8","author":"Naragani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-009-1878-y","article-title":"Optimization and production of novel antimicrobial agents from sponge associated marine actinomycetes Nocardiopsis dassonvillei MAD08","volume":"83","author":"Selvin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/S2222-1808(13)60071-7","article-title":"Antibacterial and brine shrimp lethality effect of marine actinobacterium Streptomyces sp. CAS72 against human pathogenic bacteria","volume":"3","author":"Palaniappan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15469","DOI":"10.5897\/AJB12.1126","article-title":"Screening of marine sponge-associated bacteria from Echinodictyum gorgonoides and its bioactivity","volume":"11","author":"Dhinakaran","year":"2012","journal-title":"Afr. J. Biotechnol."}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/13\/7\/1552\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:02:44Z","timestamp":1760032964000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/13\/7\/1552"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,2]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms13071552"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms13071552","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,2]]}}}