{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T00:10:20Z","timestamp":1788307820556,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":100,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,4]],"date-time":"2025-09-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756944000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background:\u00a0Staphylococcus aureus is a major zoonotic and foodborne pathogen with substantial One Health implications, yet its prevalence, resistance, and virulence potential within the aquaculture sector in Nigeria remains poorly characterized. Objectives: To supplement existing information, this current study investigated the prevalence, clonal distribution, antimicrobial resistance, and virulence gene profiles of S. aureus isolates from fish, fish water, and occupationally exposed fish handlers in Anambra State, Southeast Nigeria. Methods: A total of 607 samples\u2014comprising 465 surface swabs from raw and processed fish, 36 fish water samples, and 106 nasal swabs from fish handlers\u2014were processed using selective culture, biochemical tests, antimicrobial susceptibility testing, DNA microarray analysis, spa typing, and SCCmec typing. Results: S. aureus was recovered from 16.5% (100\/607) of the samples. Fourteen (14%) isolates were methicillin-resistant (MRSA), harboring mecA and SCCmec types IV and V, with a combined MRSA prevalence of 2.3%. Multidrug resistance was observed in 52.2% of isolates (mean Multiple Antimicrobial Resistance index: 0.23), with 19 resistance genes spanning nine antimicrobial classes\u2014including heavy metal and biocide resistance. Twenty-eight spa types across 13 clonal complexes (CCs) were identified, with CC1, CC5, and CC8 predominating. The detection of shared spa types between fish and handlers indicates potential cross-contamination. Detected virulence genes included those for accessory gene regulators (agrI-IV), Pantone\u2013Valentine leucocidin (lukFS-PV), toxic shock syndrome (tsst-1), hemolysins (hla, hlb, hld\/hlIII, hlgA), biofilm formation (icaA, icaD), immune evasion (chp, scn, sak), enterotoxins (sea, seb, sec, sed, egc, and others), exfoliative toxins (etA, etB), epidermal cells differentiation (edinA, edinB), and capsular types (cap5, cap8). Conclusions: This study reveals that the aquaculture sector in Southeast Nigeria serves as a significant reservoir of genetically diverse, multidrug-resistant S. aureus strains with robust virulence profiles. These findings highlight the necessity of integrated One Health surveillance and targeted interventions addressing antimicrobial use and hygiene practices within aquatic food systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13092059","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,4]],"date-time":"2025-09-04T15:31:21Z","timestamp":1756999881000},"page":"2059","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Molecular Epidemiology, Antimicrobial Resistance, and Virulence Profiles of Staphylococcus aureus from Fish, Aquatic Environments, and Fish Handlers in Southeast Nigeria"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Uju Catherine","family":"Okafor","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 402001, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Onyinye Josephine","family":"Okorie-Kanu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 402001, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6459-4432","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Akwoba Joseph","family":"Ogugua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 402001, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chika Florence","family":"Ikeogu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Management, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka 420231, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8509-4610","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simeon Chibuko","family":"Okafor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Pathology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 402001, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2754-103X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Madubuike Umunna","family":"Anyanwu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Immunology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 402001, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Obichukwu Chisom","family":"Nwobi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 402001, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chidiebere Ohazuruike","family":"Anyaoha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 402001, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anthony Christian","family":"Mgbeahuruike","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Immunology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 402001, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7294-3487","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lynda Onyinyechi","family":"Majesty-Alukagberie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 402001, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Innocent Okwundu","family":"Nwankwo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 402001, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chukwunonso Francis","family":"Obi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Parasitology and Entomology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 402001, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ejike Ekene","family":"Ugwuijem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 402001, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1274-0690","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nkechi Harriet","family":"Ikenna-Ezeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Immunology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 402001, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ifeyinwa Riona","family":"Okosi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Diagnostic and Outstation Services, National Veterinary Research Institute, P.O. Box 01, Vom 930101, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Onyemaechi","family":"Ugboh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, University of Delta, Agbor P.O. Box 2090, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George Okey","family":"Ezeifeka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike 440101, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4167-8964","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ekene Vivienne","family":"Ezenduka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 402001, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4475-8887","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charles Odilichukwu R.","family":"Okpala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UGA Cooperative Extension, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7269-7949","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edet Ekpenyong","family":"Udo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Kuwait University, Kuwait City 12037, Kuwait"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Touaitia, R., Mairi, A., Ibrahim, N.A., Basher, N.S., Idres, T., and Touati, A. 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