{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T16:16:39Z","timestamp":1792167399999,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":281,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,10]],"date-time":"2025-09-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757462400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Henan Provincial Key Research and Development Special Project","award":["241111321400"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["241111321400"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Antibiotics are widely used in modern medicine. However, as global antibiotic consumption rises, environmental contamination with antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) is becoming a serious concern. The impact of antibiotic use on human health is now under scrutiny, particularly regarding the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) in the environment. This has heightened interest in technologies for treating ARGs, highlighting the need for effective solutions. This review traces the life cycle of ARB and ARGs driven by human activity, revealing pathways from antibiotic use to human infection. We address the mechanisms enabling resistance in ARB during this process. Beyond intrinsic resistance, the primary cause of ARB resistance is the horizontal gene transfer (HGT) of ARGs. These genes exploit mobile genetic elements (MGEs) to spread via conjugation, transformation, transduction, and outer membrane vesicles (OMVs). Currently, biological wastewater treatment is the primary pollution control method due to its cost-effectiveness. However, these biological processes can promote ARG propagation, significantly amplifying the environmental threat posed by antibiotics. This review also summarizes key mechanisms in the biological treatment of antibiotics and evaluates risks associated with major ARB\/ARG removal processes. Our aim is to enhance understanding of ARB risks, their pathways and mechanisms in biotreatment, and potential biomedical applications for pollution control.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13092113","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,10]],"date-time":"2025-09-10T12:27:41Z","timestamp":1757507261000},"page":"2113","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":47,"title":["The Environmental Lifecycle of Antibiotics and Resistance Genes: Transmission Mechanisms, Challenges, and Control Strategies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Zhiguo","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Ecology and Environment, Zhengzhou University, 100 Science Avenue, Zhengzhou 450001, China"},{"name":"Henan International Joint Laboratory of Environment and Resources, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jialu","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Ecology and Environment, Zhengzhou University, 100 Science Avenue, Zhengzhou 450001, China"},{"name":"Henan International Joint Laboratory of Environment and Resources, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xueting","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Ecology and Environment, Zhengzhou University, 100 Science Avenue, Zhengzhou 450001, China"},{"name":"Henan International Joint Laboratory of Environment and Resources, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoling","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Ecology and Environment, Zhengzhou University, 100 Science Avenue, Zhengzhou 450001, China"},{"name":"Henan International Joint Laboratory of Environment and Resources, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Heng","family":"Yuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Ecology and Environment, Zhengzhou University, 100 Science Avenue, Zhengzhou 450001, China"},{"name":"Henan International Joint Laboratory of Environment and Resources, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Congyong","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sinopec Zhongyuan Petrochemical Co., Ltd., Puyang 457000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3878-159X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qiong","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Ecology and Environment, Zhengzhou University, 100 Science Avenue, Zhengzhou 450001, China"},{"name":"Henan International Joint Laboratory of Environment and Resources, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoying","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Ecology and Environment, Zhengzhou University, 100 Science Avenue, Zhengzhou 450001, China"},{"name":"Henan International Joint Laboratory of Environment and Resources, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Junfeng","family":"Wan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Ecology and Environment, Zhengzhou University, 100 Science Avenue, Zhengzhou 450001, China"},{"name":"Henan International Joint Laboratory of Environment and Resources, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christophe","family":"Dagot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Group on Water, Soil and the Environment (GRESE) EA 4330, Universit\u00e9 de Limoges, 123 Avenue Albert Thomas, F-87060 Limoges, France"},{"name":"National Institute for Health and Medical Research (INSERM), F-87000 Limoges, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1111\/apm.12951","article-title":"Antibiotic therapy as personalized medicine\u2014General considerations and complicating factors","volume":"127","author":"Moser","year":"2019","journal-title":"APMIS"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2411919121","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2411919121","article-title":"Global trends in antibiotic consumption during 2016\u20132023 and future projections through 2030","volume":"121","author":"Klein","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proc. 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