{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,17]],"date-time":"2025-10-17T00:08:59Z","timestamp":1760659739705,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":94,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]],"date-time":"2025-10-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760400000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000049","name":"UT Health San Antonio Center for Biomedical Neuroscience (CBN) and grants from the NIA","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P30 AG066546","5P30AG059305-03","RF1AG061729A1","5U01AG052409-04","UG3AG090675"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P30 AG066546","5P30AG059305-03","RF1AG061729A1","5U01AG052409-04","UG3AG090675"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000049","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000065","name":"NINDS","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["NS017950","UF1NS125513","K01NS126489"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NS017950","UF1NS125513","K01NS126489"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000065","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Alterations in both oral and gut microbiomes have been associated with Alzheimer\u2019s disease and related dementia (ADRD). While extensive research has focused on the role of gut dysbiosis in ADRD, the contribution of the oral microbiome remains relatively understudied. This study aims to evaluate distinct patterns and potential synergistic effects of oral and gut microbiomes in a cohort of predominantly Hispanic individuals with cognitive impairment (CI) and without cognitive impairment (NC). We conducted 16S rRNA gene sequencing on stool and saliva samples from 32 participants (17 CI, 15 NC; 62.5% female, mean age = 70.4 \u00b1 6.2 years) recruited in San Antonio, Texas, USA. Differential abundance analysis evaluated taxa with significant differences between both groups. While diversity metrics showed no significant differences between CI and NC groups, differential abundance analysis revealed an increased presence of oral genera such as Dialister, Fretibacterium, and Mycoplasma in CI participants. Conversely, CI individuals exhibited a decreased abundance of gut genera, including Shuttleworthia, Holdemania, and Subdoligranulum, which are known for their anti-inflammatory properties. No evidence was found for synergistic contributions between oral and gut microbiomes in the context of CI. Our findings suggest that like the gut microbiome, the oral microbiome of CI participants undergoes significant modifications. Notably, the identified oral microbes have been previously associated with periodontal diseases and gingivitis. These results underscore the necessity for further investigations with larger sample sizes to validate our findings and elucidate the complex interplay between oral and gut microbiomes in ADRD pathogenesis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13102350","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]],"date-time":"2025-10-14T07:51:28Z","timestamp":1760428288000},"page":"2350","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Differential Patterns of Gut and Oral Microbiomes in Hispanic Individuals with Cognitive Impairment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8955-1874","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yannick N.","family":"Wadop","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Glenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer\u2019s & Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Erin L.","family":"Vasquez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Glenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer\u2019s & Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Julia J.","family":"Mathews","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Glenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer\u2019s & Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jazmyn A. S.","family":"Muhammad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Glenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer\u2019s & Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9019-2768","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosa","family":"Pirela Mavarez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosciences and Department of Human Genetics, School of Medicine, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Brownsville, TX 78539, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1115-4430","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudia L.","family":"Satizabal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Glenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer\u2019s & Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA"},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA"},{"name":"Department of Population Health Sciences, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA"},{"name":"Framingham Heart Study, Framingham, MA 01702, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mitzi M.","family":"Gonzales","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Glenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer\u2019s & Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA"},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Cedars Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9828-1776","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeremy","family":"Tanner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Glenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer\u2019s & Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gladys","family":"Maestre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosciences and Department of Human Genetics, School of Medicine, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Brownsville, TX 78539, USA"},{"name":"Laboratorio de Neurociencias and Instituto Cardiovascular, Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo 4001, Venezuela"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4860-5749","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alfred N.","family":"Fonteh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurosciences Department, Huntington Medical Research Institutes, Pasadena, CA 91105, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sudha","family":"Seshadri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Glenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer\u2019s & Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA"},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA"},{"name":"Framingham Heart Study, Framingham, MA 01702, USA"},{"name":"Department of Neurology, UT Health San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7680-4708","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tiffany F.","family":"Kautz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Glenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer\u2019s & Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8161-1553","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bernard","family":"Fongang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Glenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer\u2019s & Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA"},{"name":"Department of Population Health Sciences, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1038\/s43587-022-00287-9","article-title":"Associations of the skin, oral and gut microbiome with aging, frailty and infection risk reservoirs in older adults","volume":"2","author":"Larson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Aging"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1038\/s42255-021-00348-0","article-title":"Gut microbiome pattern reflects healthy ageing and predicts survival in humans","volume":"3","author":"Wilmanski","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Metab."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-022-00605-x","article-title":"The gut microbiome as a modulator of healthy ageing","volume":"19","author":"Ghosh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-020-00460-0","article-title":"The gut microbiota\u2013brain axis in behaviour and brain disorders","volume":"19","author":"Morais","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, L., Huh, J.R., and Shah, K. (2022). Microbiota and the gut-brain-axis: Implications for new therapeutic design in the CNS. EBioMedicine, 77.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2022.103908"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-021-04060-w","article-title":"The microbiota\u2013gut\u2013brain axis: Pathways to better brain health. Perspectives on what we know, what we need to investigate and how to put knowledge into practice","volume":"79","author":"Chakrabarti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-021-00499-1","article-title":"The promise of the gut microbiome as part of individualized treatment strategies","volume":"19","author":"Schupack","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1754","DOI":"10.12998\/wjcc.v10.i6.1754","article-title":"Gut-brain axis: Focus on gut metabolites short-chain fatty acids","volume":"10","author":"Guo","year":"2022","journal-title":"World J. Clin. Cases"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Varesi, A., Pierella, E., Romeo, M., Piccini, G.B., Alfano, C., Bj\u00f8rklund, G., Oppong, A., Ricevuti, G., Esposito, C., and Chirumbolo, S. (2022). The Potential Role of Gut Microbiota in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: From Diagnosis to Treatment. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14030668"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"698","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2022.01.025","article-title":"Gut microbiota modulation in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Focus on lipid metabolism","volume":"41","author":"Bonfili","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tarawneh, R., and Penhos, E. (2022). The Gut Microbiome and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Complex and Bidirectional Interactions. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 141.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2022.104814"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2021.105640","article-title":"The gut microbiota-brain axis, psychobiotics and its influence on brain and behaviour: A systematic review","volume":"137","author":"Barrio","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verhaar, B.J.H., Hendriksen, H.M.A., de Leeuw, F.A., Doorduijn, A.S., van Leeuwenstijn, M., Teunissen, C.E., Barkhof, F., Scheltens, P., Kraaij, R., and van Duijn, C.M. (2022). Gut Microbiota Composition Is Related to AD Pathology. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.794519"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fongang, B., Satizabal, C., Kautz, T.F., Wadop, Y.N., Muhammad, J.A.S., Vasquez, E., Mathews, J., Gireud-Goss, M., Saklad, A.R., and Himali, J. (2023). Cerebral small vessel disease burden is associated with decreased abundance of gut Barnesiella intestinihominis bacterium in the Framingham Heart Study. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-40872-5"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.4103\/jomfp.JOMFP_304_18","article-title":"Oral microbiome: Unveiling the fundamentals","volume":"23","author":"Deo","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Oral Maxillofac. Pathol. JOMFP"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1177\/0022034520924633","article-title":"The bacterial connection between the oral cavity and the gut diseases","volume":"99","author":"Kitamoto","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-022-00974-4","article-title":"Microbiota in health and diseases","volume":"7","author":"Hou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2021.106475","article-title":"The role of oral microbiome in respiratory health and diseases","volume":"185","author":"Pathak","year":"2021","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1177\/1099800420941606","article-title":"The Oral and Gut Bacterial Microbiomes: Similarities, Differences, and Connections","volume":"23","author":"Maki","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biol. Res. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, S.-Y., Hwang, B.-O., Lim, M., Ok, S.-H., Lee, S.-K., Chun, K.-S., Park, K.-K., Hu, Y., Chung, W.-Y., and Song, N.-Y. (2021). Oral-Gut Microbiome Axis in Gastrointestinal Disease and Cancer. Cancers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers13092124"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1186\/s12934-020-01313-4","article-title":"Gut, oral and nasal microbiota and Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"19","author":"Shen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microb. Cell Fact."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maitre, Y., Micheneau, P., Delpierre, A., Mahalli, R., Guerin, M., Amador, G., and Denis, F. (2020). Did the Brain and Oral Microbiota Talk to Each Other? A Review of the Literature. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9123876"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104582","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2019.104582","article-title":"Oral microbiota and Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Do all roads lead to Rome?","volume":"151","author":"Sureda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0528.2002.300304.x","article-title":"Glycemic control of type 2 diabetes and severe periodontal disease in the US adult population","volume":"30","author":"Tsai","year":"2002","journal-title":"Community Dent. Oral Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2018.12.001","article-title":"Periodontitis and mechanisms of cardiometabolic risk: Novel insights and future perspectives","volume":"1865","author":"Mesa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA)-Mol. Basis Dis."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1007\/s13167-019-00163-4","article-title":"Innate immunity and oral microbiome: A personalized, predictive, and preventive approach to the management of oral diseases","volume":"10","author":"Yu","year":"2019","journal-title":"EPMA J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2635","article-title":"Innate immune recognition of the microbiota promotes host-microbial symbiosis","volume":"14","author":"Chu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adil, N.A., Omo-Erigbe, C., Yadav, H., and Jain, S. (2025). The oral\u2013gut microbiome\u2013brain axis in cognition. Microorganisms, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13040814"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santonocito, S., Giudice, A., Polizzi, A., Troiano, G., Merlo, E.M., Sclafani, R., Grosso, G., and Isola, G. (2022). A Cross-Talk between Diet and the Oral Microbiome: Balance of Nutrition on Inflammation and Immune System\u2019s Response during Periodontitis. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14122426"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1142","DOI":"10.2174\/1568026620666200413091101","article-title":"Healthy Gut, Healthy Brain: The Gut Microbiome in Neurodegenerative Disorders","volume":"20","author":"Chandra","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-022-00712-1","article-title":"Carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) in the gut microbiome","volume":"20","author":"Wardman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04567-7","article-title":"Environmental factors shaping the gut microbiome in a Dutch population","volume":"604","author":"Gacesa","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1093\/advances\/nmaa181","article-title":"Diet and the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis: Sowing the Seeds of Good Mental Health","volume":"12","author":"Berding","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frausto, D.M., Forsyth, C.B., Keshavarzian, A., and Voigt, R.M. (2021). Dietary Regulation of Gut-Brain Axis in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Importance of Microbiota Metabolites. Front. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2021.736814"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lorenzo, D., GianVincenzo, Z., Carlo Luca, R., Karan, G., Jorge, V., Roberto, M., and Javad, P. (2019). Oral-Gut Microbiota and Arthritis: Is There an Evidence-Based Axis?. J. Clin. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm8101753"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-018-0089-x","article-title":"The oral microbiota: Dynamic communities and host interactions","volume":"16","author":"Lamont","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Astafurov, K., Elhawy, E., Ren, L., Dong, C.Q., Igboin, C., Hyman, L., Griffen, A., Mittag, T., and Danias, J. (2014). Oral microbiome link to neurodegeneration in glaucoma. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0104416"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, H., Chang, S., Pi, X., Hua, F., Jiang, H., Liu, C., and Du, M. (2021). The effect of periodontitis on dementia and cognitive impairment: A meta-analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18136823"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ibneur.2024.12.004","article-title":"Association between periodontitis and Alzheimer\u2019s disease: A narrative review","volume":"18","author":"Seyedmoalemi","year":"2025","journal-title":"IBRO Neurosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Georges, F., Do, N., and Seleem, D. (2022). Oral dysbiosis and systemic diseases. Front. Dent. Med., 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/fdmed.2022.995423"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Su\u00e1rez, L.J., Garz\u00f3n, H., Arboleda, S., and Rodr\u00edguez, A. (2020). Oral dysbiosis and autoimmunity: From local periodontal responses to an imbalanced systemic immunity. A review. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.591255"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1038\/s41368-022-00163-7","article-title":"Oral microbiota in human systematic diseases","volume":"14","author":"Peng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Oral Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corr\u00eaa, J.D., Fernandes, G.R., Calderaro, D.C., Mendon\u00e7a, S.M.S., Silva, J.M., Albiero, M.L., Cunha, F.Q., Xiao, E., Ferreira, G.A., and Teixeira, A.L. (2019). Oral microbial dysbiosis linked to worsened periodontal condition in rheumatoid arthritis patients. Sci. Rep., 9.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-44674-6"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-00488-6","article-title":"Local and systemic mechanisms linking periodontal disease and inflammatory comorbidities","volume":"21","author":"Hajishengallis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olsen, I., and Yamazaki, K. (2019). Can oral bacteria affect the microbiome of the gut?. J. Oral Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.1080\/20002297.2019.1586422"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1097\/WAD.0000000000000223","article-title":"Version 3 of the Alzheimer Disease Centers\u2019 neuropsychological test battery in the Uniform Data Set (UDS)","volume":"32","author":"Weintraub","year":"2018","journal-title":"Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1097\/WAD.0000000000000279","article-title":"Version 3 of the national Alzheimer\u2019s coordinating center\u2019s uniform data set","volume":"32","author":"Besser","year":"2018","journal-title":"Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1097\/WAD.0000000000000111","article-title":"Results from the NACC uniform data set neuropsychological battery crosswalk study","volume":"30","author":"Monsell","year":"2016","journal-title":"Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2011.03.008","article-title":"Introduction to the recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer\u2019s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"7","author":"Albert","year":"2011","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1017\/S1041610297004870","article-title":"Clinical dementia rating: A reliable and valid diagnostic and staging measure for dementia of the Alzheimer type","volume":"9","author":"Morris","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int. Psychogeriatr."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4516","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1000080107","article-title":"Global patterns of 16S rRNA diversity at a depth of millions of sequences per sample","volume":"108","author":"Caporaso","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1621","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2012.8","article-title":"Ultra-high-throughput microbial community analysis on the Illumina HiSeq and MiSeq platforms","volume":"6","author":"Caporaso","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Nkouonlack, C.D., Njamnshi, W.Y., Angwafor, S.A., Siewe Fodjo, J.N., Mengnjo, M.K., Ngarka, L., Mbede, M., Nfor, L.N., Abomate, C., and Maestre, G.E. (Res. Sq., 2024). Dementia and cognitive impairment in French-speaking Sub-Saharan Africa: A comprehensive review on moving out of the shadows of neglect, Res. Sq., preprint."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"852","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-019-0209-9","article-title":"Reproducible, interactive, scalable and extensible microbiome data science using QIIME 2","volume":"37","author":"Bolyen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-020-0548-6","article-title":"PICRUSt2 for prediction of metagenome functions","volume":"38","author":"Douglas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mallick, H., Rahnavard, A., McIver, L.J., Ma, S., Zhang, Y., Nguyen, L.H., Tickle, T.L., Weingart, G., Ren, B., and Schwager, E.H. (2021). Multivariable association discovery in population-scale meta-omics studies. PLoS Comput. Biol., 17.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.01.20.427420"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1492","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.8986.2","article-title":"Bioconductor workflow for microbiome data analysis: From raw reads to community analyses","volume":"5","author":"Callahan","year":"2016","journal-title":"F1000Research"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1089\/omi.2011.0118","article-title":"clusterProfiler: An R package for comparing biological themes among gene clusters","volume":"16","author":"Yu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Omics A J. Integr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khemwong, T., Kobayashi, H., Ikeda, Y., Matsuura, T., Sudo, T., Kano, C., Mikami, R., and Izumi, Y. (2019). Fretibacterium sp. human oral taxon 360 is a novel biomarker for periodontitis screening in the Japanese population. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0218266"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00121","DOI":"10.1128\/mSphere.00162-21","article-title":"Dental plaque microbial resistomes of periodontal health and disease and their changes after scaling and root planing therapy","volume":"6","author":"Kang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Msphere"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-051X.1990.tb01073.x","article-title":"Mycoplasma in relation to gingivitis and periodontitis","volume":"17","author":"Kwek","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Deng, Z.-L., Szafra\u0144ski, S.P., Jarek, M., Bhuju, S., and Wagner-D\u00f6bler, I. (2017). Dysbiosis in chronic periodontitis: Key microbial players and interactions with the human host. Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-03804-8"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-2094-5-37","article-title":"Neuro-inflammation induced by lipopolysaccharide causes cognitive impairment through enhancement of beta-amyloid generation","volume":"5","author":"Lee","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2022.10.007","article-title":"Bacterial chemotaxis in human diseases","volume":"31","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Killingsworth, J., Sawmiller, D., and Shytle, R.D. (2021). Propionate and Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Front. Aging Neurosci., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2020.580001"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Troesch, B., Weber, P., and Mohajeri, M.H. (2016). Potential links between impaired one-carbon metabolism due to polymorphisms, inadequate B-vitamin status, and the development of Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Nutrients, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu8120803"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kodam, P., Sai Swaroop, R., Pradhan, S.S., Sivaramakrishnan, V., and Vadrevu, R. (2023). Integrated multi-omics analysis of Alzheimer\u2019s disease shows molecular signatures associated with disease progression and potential therapeutic targets. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-30892-6"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3047","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbamem.2015.02.010","article-title":"Cationic antimicrobial peptide resistance mechanisms of streptococcal pathogens","volume":"1848","author":"LaRock","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA)-Biomembr."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2018.11.029","article-title":"Polyion complexes of a cationic antimicrobial peptide as a potential systemically administered antibiotic","volume":"554","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geitani, R., Ayoub Moubareck, C., Touqui, L., and Karam Sarkis, D. (2019). Cationic antimicrobial peptides: Alternatives and\/or adjuvants to antibiotics active against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. BMC Microbiol., 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-019-1416-8"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sansores-Espa\u00f1a, L.D., Melgar-Rodr\u00edguez, S., Olivares-Sagredo, K., Cafferata, E.A., Mart\u00ednez-Aguilar, V.M., Vernal, R., Paula-Lima, A.C., and D\u00edaz-Z\u00fa\u00f1iga, J. (2021). Oral-gut-brain axis in experimental models of periodontitis: Associating gut dysbiosis with neurodegenerative diseases. Front. Aging, 2.","DOI":"10.3389\/fragi.2021.781582"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1128\/ecosalplus.esp-0001-2018","article-title":"Function and biogenesis of lipopolysaccharides","volume":"8","author":"Bertani","year":"2018","journal-title":"EcoSal Plus"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.5217\/ir.2014.12.2.90","article-title":"Lipopolysaccharide: Basic biochemistry, intracellular signaling, and physiological impacts in the gut","volume":"12","author":"Rhee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Intest. Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpe.13793","article-title":"Subgingival microbiome in periodontal health, gingivitis and different stages of periodontitis","volume":"50","author":"Iniesta","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpe.13644","article-title":"Association of oral bacteria with oral hygiene habits and self-reported gingival bleeding","volume":"49","author":"Bertelsen","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ortiz, A.P., Acosta-Pag\u00e1n, K.T., Oramas-Sep\u00falveda, C., Casta\u00f1eda-Avila, M.A., Vilanova-Cuevas, B., Ramos-Cartagena, J.M., Vivaldi, J.A., P\u00e9rez-Santiago, J., P\u00e9rez, C.M., and Godoy-Vitorino, F. (2022). Oral microbiota and periodontitis severity among Hispanic adults. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.965159"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yussof, A., Yoon, P., Krkljes, C., Schweinberg, S., Cottrell, J., Chu, T., and Chang, S.L. (2020). A meta-analysis of the effect of binge drinking on the oral microbiome and its relation to Alzheimer\u2019s disease. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-76784-x"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1007\/s00005-017-0472-8","article-title":"The immune response in periodontal tissues","volume":"65","author":"Kowalski","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arch. Immunol. Ther. Exp."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1762","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jds.2022.07.001","article-title":"Association of periodontitis and oral microbiomes with Alzheimer\u2019s disease: A narrative systematic review","volume":"17","author":"Mao","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Dent. Sci."},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"e12000","article-title":"Classifying dementia progression using microbial profiling of saliva","volume":"12","author":"Bathini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement. Diagn. Assess. Dis. Monit."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1849998","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2020.1849998","article-title":"From correlation to causality: The case of Subdoligranulum","volume":"12","author":"Prifti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, Y., Zhang, Y., Zhao, X., Shang, C., Xiang, M., Li, L., and Cui, X. (2022). Microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids: Implications for cardiovascular and metabolic disease. Front. Cardiovasc. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2022.900381"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Connor, K.M., Lucking, E.F., Bastiaanssen, T.F., Peterson, V.L., Crispie, F., Cotter, P.D., Clarke, G., Cryan, J.F., and O\u2019Halloran, K.D. (2020). Prebiotic administration modulates gut microbiota and faecal short-chain fatty acid concentrations but does not prevent chronic intermittent hypoxia-induced apnoea and hypertension in adult rats. EBioMedicine, 59.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2020.102968"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, F., Chen, H., Gao, Y., An, N., Li, X., Pan, X., Yang, X., Tian, L., Sun, J., and Xiong, X. (2020). Gut microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids and hypertension: Mechanism and treatment. Biomed. Pharmacother., 130.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2020.110503"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psj.2020.09.089","article-title":"Microbiota populations and short-chain fatty acids production in cecum of immunosuppressed broilers consuming diets containing \u03b3-irradiated Astragalus polysaccharides","volume":"100","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.12760","article-title":"The immune response to Prevotella bacteria in chronic inflammatory disease","volume":"151","author":"Larsen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2015.03.016","article-title":"Altered fecal microbiota composition in patients with major depressive disorder","volume":"48","author":"Jiang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1002\/jobm.202300250","article-title":"The role of periodontitis-associated bacteria in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: A narrative review","volume":"63","author":"Eslami","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Basic. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, J., Bi, W., Xiao, S., Lan, X., Cheng, X., Zhang, J., Lu, D., Wei, W., Wang, Y., and Li, H. (2019). Neuroinflammation induced by lipopolysaccharide causes cognitive impairment in mice. Sci. Rep., 9.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-42286-8"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kalyan, M., Tousif, A.H., Sonali, S., Vichitra, C., Sunanda, T., Praveenraj, S.S., Ray, B., Gorantla, V.R., Rungratanawanich, W., and Mahalakshmi, A.M. (2022). Role of endogenous lipopolysaccharides in neurological disorders. Cells, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11244038"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ostfeld, I., Ben-Zeev, T., Zamir, A., Levi, C., Gepner, Y., Springer, S., and Hoffman, J.R. (2023). Role of \u03b2-Alanine Supplementation on Cognitive Function, Mood, and Physical Function in Older Adults; Double-Blind Randomized Controlled Study. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15040923"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neuffer, J., Gonz\u00e1lez-Dom\u00ednguez, R., Lef\u00e8vre-Arbogast, S., Low, D.Y., Driollet, B., Helmer, C., Du Preez, A., de Lucia, C., Ruigrok, S.R., and Altendorfer, B. (2022). Exploration of the gut\u2013brain axis through metabolomics identifies serum propionic acid associated with higher cognitive decline in older persons. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14214688"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2019.03.003","article-title":"Methane ameliorates post-operative cognitive dysfunction by inhibiting microglia NF-\u03baB\/MAPKs pathway and promoting IL-10 expression in aged mice","volume":"71","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-021-00948-8","article-title":"Apolipoprotein E and sex modulate fatty acid metabolism in a prospective observational study of cognitive decline","volume":"14","author":"Low","year":"2022","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Res. Ther."}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/13\/10\/2350\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]],"date-time":"2025-10-16T04:11:50Z","timestamp":1760587910000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/13\/10\/2350"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]]},"references-count":94,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms13102350"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms13102350","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2076-2607"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]]}}}