{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T13:32:42Z","timestamp":1790947962288,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,24]],"date-time":"2025-11-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763942400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["81671600"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["81671600"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["81241094"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["81241094"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province, China","award":["ZR2016HM13"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2016HM13"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province, China","award":["ZR2023MH066"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZR2023MH066"]}]},{"name":"Qingdao Medical and health scientific research project","award":["2024-WJKY160"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024-WJKY160"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study aimed to analyze gut microbiome similarities and differences between primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) and primary Sj\u00f6gren\u2019s syndrome (pSS), exploring potential associations with disease pathogenesis. High-throughput sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene was performed on fecal samples from 100 subjects (PBC: 38; pSS: 42; HC: 20) to compare the composition, diversity, and key microbial markers, examining associations with clinical indicators. The gut microbiome of PBC and pSS patients exhibited reduced alpha diversity (p &lt; 0.05) and decreased abundance of the Bacteroides genus (both p &lt; 0.001). While the majority of differentially abundant species were similar in PBC and pSS, unique imbalances were noted: Actinobacteria was elevated in pSS, whereas Proteobacteria was higher in PBC (p &lt; 0.05). At the species level, a higher relative abundance of Ruminococcus torques, Clostridium celatum, and Lactobacillus vaginalis was identified in PBC patients, with positive correlations observed with key clinical indicators such as liver enzymes and TBA. In pSS patients, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii showed a negative correlation with GGT and ALT. Although PBC and pSS shared many similarities in their gut microbiome\u2019s composition and diversity, indicating common mechanistic microbial influences on their pathogenicity, distinct microbial profiles correlated with clinical indicators in each disease, highlighting specific microbiome\u2013disease interactions that may underlie their differential pathogenesis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13122668","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,24]],"date-time":"2025-11-24T13:09:25Z","timestamp":1763989765000},"page":"2668","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Decoding the Gut Microbiome in Primary Sj\u00f6gren\u2019s Syndrome and Primary Biliary Cholangitis: Shared Dysbiosis, Distinct Patterns, and Associations with Clinical Features"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7534-8595","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bo","family":"Zang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lishan","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Liaocheng People\u2019s Hospital, Liaocheng 252003, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6546-3741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haojie","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266299, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qixuan","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate Group of Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuan","family":"Yao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiaxiu","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yifei","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chenyang","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine II, Heart Center Bonn, University Hospital Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bingqian","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bin","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2011.11.005","article-title":"Primary biliary cirrhosis and Sj\u00f6gren\u2019s syndrome: Autoimmune epithelitis","volume":"39","author":"Selmi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(03)13808-1","article-title":"Primary biliary cirrhosis","volume":"362","author":"Talwalkar","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-3768.1954.tb03313.x","article-title":"Corneal changes in a case of hepatitis","volume":"32","author":"Cristansson","year":"1954","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/33.8.745","article-title":"Liver involvement in primary Sj\u00f6gren\u2019s syndrome","volume":"33","author":"Skopouli","year":"1994","journal-title":"Br. J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"74","article-title":"The microbiome in autoimmune diseases","volume":"195","author":"Shoenfeld","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2272","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.13401","article-title":"Alterations and correlations of the gut microbiome, metabolism and immunity in patients with primary biliary cirrhosis","volume":"18","author":"Lv","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2016-313332","article-title":"Gut microbial profile is altered in primary biliary cholangitis and partially restored after UDCA therapy","volume":"67","author":"Tang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1186\/s13075-017-1446-2","article-title":"Severe intestinal dysbiosis is prevalent in primary Sj\u00f6gren\u2019s syndrome and is associated with systemic disease activity","volume":"19","author":"Mandl","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1053\/he.2000.5984","article-title":"Management of primary biliary cirrhosis. The American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases practice guidelines","volume":"31","author":"Heathcote","year":"2000","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1002\/acr.21591","article-title":"American College of Rheumatology classification criteria for Sjogren\u2019s syndrome: A data-driven, expert consensus approach in the Sjogren\u2019s International Collaborative Clinical Alliance cohort","volume":"64","author":"Shiboski","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arthritis Care Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"852","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-019-0209-9","article-title":"Reproducible, interactive, scalable and extensible microbiome data science using QIIME 2","volume":"37","author":"Bolyen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8228","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.71.12.8228-8235.2005","article-title":"UniFrac: A new phylogenetic method for comparing microbial communities","volume":"71","author":"Lozupone","year":"2005","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6941.2007.00375.x","article-title":"Multivariate analyses in microbial ecology","volume":"62","author":"Ramette","year":"2007","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1552","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.120618.111","article-title":"Integrative analysis of environmental sequences using MEGAN4","volume":"21","author":"Huson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1029","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.1029","article-title":"Compact graphical representation of phylogenetic data and metadata with GraPhlAn","volume":"3","author":"Asnicar","year":"2015","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zaura, E., Keijser, B.J.F., Huse, S.M., and Crielaard, W. (2009). Defining the healthy \u201ccore microbiome\u201d of oral microbial communities. BMC Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-9-259"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1024","DOI":"10.1111\/cmi.12308","article-title":"Defining dysbiosis and its influence on host immunity and disease","volume":"16","author":"Petersen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2018.06.004","article-title":"Protective role of commensal bacteria in Sj\u00f6gren Syndrome","volume":"93","author":"Zaheer","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Paiva, C.S., Jones, D.B., Stern, M.E., Bian, F., Moore, Q.L., Corbiere, S., Streckfus, C.F., Hutchinson, D.S., Ajami, N.J., and Petrosino, J.F. (2016). Altered Mucosal Microbiome Diversity and Disease Severity in Sjogren Syndrome. Sci. Rep., 6.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep23561"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2015.06.011","article-title":"Proteobacteria: Microbial signature of dysbiosis in gut microbiota","volume":"33","author":"Shin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2717","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2024.03.034","article-title":"Gut symbionts alleviate MASH through a secondary bile acid biosynthetic pathway","volume":"187","author":"Nie","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2379566","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2024.2379566","article-title":"Bacteroides fragilis alleviates necrotizing enterocolitis through restoring bile acid metabolism balance using bile salt hydrolase and inhibiting FXR-NLRP3 signaling pathway","volume":"16","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"jjae189","DOI":"10.1093\/ecco-jcc\/jjae189","article-title":"Open label vancomycin in primary sclerosing cholangitis-inflammatory bowel disease: Improved colonic disease activity and associations with changes in host-microbiome-metabolomic signatures","volume":"19","author":"Quraishi","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Crohn\u2019s Colitis"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-016-0299-7","article-title":"An expansion of rare lineage intestinal microbes characterizes rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"8","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"767","article-title":"Diversity analysis of intestinal microbiota in Graves disease patients","volume":"36","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Pr. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1268","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI72030","article-title":"CXCL5-secreting pulmonary epithelial cells drive destructive neutrophilic inflammation in tuberculosis","volume":"124","author":"Nouailles","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13582","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1902922116","article-title":"Shigella promotes major alteration of gut epithelial physiology and tissue invasion by shutting off host intracellular transport","volume":"116","author":"Ferrari","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1186\/s13020-024-01045-2","article-title":"Integrated analysis of metabolome, lipidome, and gut microbiome reveals the immunomodulation of Astragali radix in healthy human subjects","volume":"19","author":"Gui","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chin. Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12487","DOI":"10.1002\/jev2.12487","article-title":"Roseburia intestinalis-derived extracellular vesicles ameliorate colitis by modulating intestinal barrier, microbiome, and inflammatory responses","volume":"13","author":"Han","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109726","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2021.109726","article-title":"Gut microbiota-mediated secondary bile acids regulate dendritic cells to attenuate autoimmune uveitis through TGR5 signaling","volume":"36","author":"Hu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsb.2021.12.011","article-title":"Bile acid coordinates microbiota homeostasis and systemic immunometabolism in cardiometabolic diseases","volume":"12","author":"Guan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Pharm. Sin. B"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1881","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2017-314307","article-title":"Suppressed hepatic bile acid signalling despite elevated production of primary and secondary bile acids in NAFLD","volume":"67","author":"Jiao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schaus, S.R., Pereira, G.V., Luis, A.S., Madlambayan, E., Terrapon, N., Ostrowski, M.P., Jin, C., Henrissat, B., Hansson, G.C., and Martens, E.C. (2004). Ruminococcus torques is a keystone degrader of intestinal mucin glycoprotein, releasing oligosaccharides used by Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron. mBio, 15.","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.00039-24"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thangamani, S., Monasky, R., Lee, J.K., Antharam, V., HogenEsch, H., Hazbun, T.R., Jin, Y., Gu, H., and Guo, G.L. (2021). Bile Acid Regulates the Colonization and Dissemination of Candida albicans from the Gastrointestinal Tract by Controlling Host Defense System and Microbiota. J. Fungi, 7.","DOI":"10.1101\/2021.09.29.462497"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, H., Gong, J., Chen, J., Zhang, W., Sun, Y., and Sun, D. (2024). Intestinal microbiota and biliary system diseases. Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1362933"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2008.05.022","article-title":"Primary biliary cirrhosis following Lactobacillus vaccination for recurrent vaginitis","volume":"49","author":"Bogdanos","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eade, C.R., Diaz, C., Wood, M.P., Anastos, K., Patterson, B.K., Gupta, P., Cole, A.L., and Cole, A.M. (2012). Identification and characterization of bacterial vaginosis-associated pathogens using a comprehensive cervical-vaginal epithelial coculture assay. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0050106"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2013.06.003","article-title":"Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and human intestinal health","volume":"16","author":"Miquel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiao, M., Yan, S., Shi, Q., Liu, Y., Li, Y., Lv, J., Ding, S., and Li, A. (2022). Alcohol-Related Elevation of Liver Transaminase Is Associated With Gut Microbiota in Male. Front. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2022.823898"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1808640","DOI":"10.1155\/2023\/1808640","article-title":"Effects of Dietary Pediococcus acidilactici and Isomaltooligosaccharide on Growth Performance, Immunity, and Antioxidant Defense in Juvenile Common Carp","volume":"2023","author":"Maniat","year":"2023","journal-title":"Aquac. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2247","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1322269111","article-title":"The microbial metabolite butyrate regulates intestinal macrophage function via histone deacetylase inhibition","volume":"111","author":"Chang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan, X., Kaminga, A.C., Liu, A., Wen, S.W., Luo, M., and Luo, J. (2021). Gut Microbiota, Glucose, Lipid, and Water-Electrolyte Metabolism in Children With Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2021.683743"}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/13\/12\/2668\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,24]],"date-time":"2025-11-24T13:36:46Z","timestamp":1763991406000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/13\/12\/2668"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,24]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms13122668"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms13122668","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,24]]}}}